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PHILOSOPHICAL CATECHISxM 



OF THE 



NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 



BY G. SPURZHETM, M. D. 

OF THE UNIVERSITIES OF VIENNA AND PARIS, AND 

LICENTIATE OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF 

PHYSICIANS IN LONDON. 



< 



THIRD EDITION, IMPROVED 



BOSTON: J 



MARSH. CAPE N, AND LYON. 

1883, 



^^Vv^^; 






Entered according to the act of Congress, 
in the year 1832, by Marsh, Capen, 4" Lyon, 
in the Clerk's office of the District Court of 
Massachusetts 






PREFACE. 



Men have long been treated as chil- 
dren ; they have been taught that igno- 
rance and credulity are virtues, and that 
fear is wisdom ; and that they may glo- 
rify God by flattery rather than by moral 
excellency. Arbitrary regulations of all 
sorts have been imposed upon them, and 
blind and unconditional obedience to these 
required. Words too often satisfy them ; 
and the less they understand, the more 
do they generally deem it incumbent on 
them to admire ; sensual gratifications 
have proved sufficient inducements for 
them willingly to follow the good pleas- 
ure of their masters. Even religion., in 
one or another form, has been an engine 
to crush the human mind. This was, at 
all times, more or less the deplorable con- 



IV PREFACE 

dition of mankind. Those who even in 
our days make exception, are compara- 
tively few in number. 

The following pages are written with 
a view to ascertain whether or not the 
human kind be susceptible of better treat- 
ment ; and whether or not the arbitrary 
legislation of man, that has hitherto been, 
and must always be, but temporary, and 
of limited application, might not advan- 
tageously give place to a code of immuta- 
ble laws, which, established by the Cre- 
ator, and not adapted to a single family, 
to a particular nation, to an age, but to 
all mankind, and to all times, are calcu- 
lated to endure as long as the species re- 
mains. 

It is of the highest importance to dem 
onstrate the existence of such laws, al- 
though it may happen that governments 
and nations themselves will oppose their 
adoption. But this opposition will not 
annihilate the reality of the natural, 



PREFACE. V 

code, and communities will certainly feel 
disposed to receive, will even demand it, 
in proportion as they become enlighten- 
ed ; they will also be worthy of it in pro- 
portion as they become virtuous. 

I shall consider my subject under the 
form of question and answer, the better 
to fix the attention of my reader. My 
sole intention is to contribute to the ame- 
lioration of man ; that is to say, to com- 
bat his ignorance and his immorality, and 
to point out the means of making him 
better and happier, by insisting particu- 
larly on the necessity of his fulfilling the 
laws of his Creator. 

Some may be of opinion that I might 
here have avoided the introduction of 
any question upon religion and morality. 
I, however, think it incumbent on a phi- 
losopher to examine all that enters into 
the nature of man, and to c hold fast that 
which is good.'' Now man being positively 
endowed with moral and religious feel- 

it 



VI PREFACE. 

ings, as well as with vegetative functions 
and intellectual faculties, it was my busi- 
ness to speak of the former as well as of 
the latter. Nay, true religion is central 
truth ; and all knowledge, in my opinion, 
should be gathered round it. 

I lament the continual war which phi- 
losophers, moralists, and divines, h'ave 
hitherto waged. They have only mutu- 
ally disparaged their inquiries, and re- 
tarded the knowledge and happiness of 
man. Would they consent to lay aside 
vanity, pride, and self-interest, they 
would perceive, and might display, the 
harmony that exists between the will of 
God and his gift of intelligence. 






PHILOSOPHICAL CATECHISM. 



GENERALITIES. 

What is the meaning of the word Philoso- 
pher? 

It signifies Lover of Wisdom. 

Jind what is understood by Wisdom? 

Wisdom consists in the knowledge and in 
the application of Truth. 

Who then is truly a philosopher? 

He who not only loves, but who applies 
truth universally. The second part is as es- 
sential to the character of a philosopher, as is 
the practice of morality to that of a christian. 

What is the aim of philosophy? 

To know objects and phenomena, and to 
show the possibility of making practical appli- 
cation of the knowledge acquired. 
1 



% NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

Then there must be many kinds of philoso- 
phers'? 

As many as there'are species of knowledge, 
or subjects that can occupy the attention. — 
One may be a philosopher, and study entire 
nature, or a particular district of her domain; 
as animals, plants, minerals, man generally, 
or his physical, moral and intellectual parts in 
particular. 

Wliat is understood by a Law? 

The word law, among the Romans lex, has 
the same root as the verb signifying, to read; 
because enactments for the conduct of the com- 
munity were promulgated of old by being read 
in public. For a long period, however, the 
word law has been used to designate a com- 
mandment to do, or to abstain from, some spe- 
cific act, in general combined with a clause 
expressive of some penalty attached to its in- 
fringement, and more rarely of some reward to 
its observance. The word law is also employ- 
ed to designate the inherent qualities of the 
objects, and the determinate manner in which 
the human faculties, and the qualities of organ- 
ized and inanimate bodies, act. That is to say: 



GENERALITIES. 3 

beings can only act after their peculiar natures, 
or according to the qualities and powers with 
which they are endowed. It is a law, that a 
stone thrown into the air falls again till it reach- 
es the ground; that the stomach digests; that 
the eye is the instrument of vision, the ear of 
hearing, kc. Further, the title law is applied 
to the regularity with which bodies and anima- 
ted beings act upon each other, and produce 
certain phenomena. It is a law, that caloric 
united with water changes it into vapor, that 
fire consumes combustible bodies, that poisons 
destroy life; and so on, through the whole cir- 
cle of natural phenomena. 

How may laics be divided? 

They may be classed under two heads — the 
Natural, and the Artificial. The Erst are im- 
posed by the Creator, the second by individual 
governors. 

JYhat is ills signification of the word nature? 

Nature is a word to which three distinct 
meanings are attached: — 

1st, It designates the universe, — (he! heav- 
ens, the earth, all that meets sense: 

2nd, It expresses essence — that which char- 



4 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

acterizes or constitutes a class of beings, or 
individuality. In this sense we say: every be- 
ing acts according to its nature; — man in his 
nature is not an angel; we cannot change the 
nature of things; we cannot, for example, 
gather figs of thistles, nor grapes of thorns. 

3rd, It is used to signify the First Cause 
personified, and may then be considered as 
synonymous with God, or Creator. 

Wliat are the characteristics of natural laws, 
or of laws established by the Creator ? 

Natural laws are inherent in beings, often 
evident, always demonstrable, universal, inva- 
riable, and harmonious. 

How is the first character of natural laws, 
their inherence, explained? 

The laws of nature exist by creation, and 
enter as a part into the constitution of beings. 
The bile is secreted by the liver according to 
a natural law, and cannot be produced by the 
stomach for a similar reason. The stomach 
digests some substances by a natural law, and 
by the same cause does not digest others. 
Light exists in conformity with certain laws, 
and we cannot see that as great which is little, 



GENERALITIES. 6 

nor that as little which is great. The inher- 
ence of natural laws is therefore apparent. 

How is the second characteristic of natural 
laws, their regularity, to be apprehended? 

The regularity of phenomena is so generally 
evident as scarcely to require demonstration. 
Every one knows that without support his body 
falls, that his hand brought too near the fire 
is burned, that there is no vision without light, 
and so on. Occasionally, however, the natu- 
ral laws are less apparent; still they may al- 
ways be discovered by observation. The me- 
chanician searches for, and finds, the laws of 
his art; the musician those of music; the 
colorist those of color; the landscape-painter 
those of perspective, &c. A great number of 
natural laws are at present unknown, but they 
will be detected as soon as truth is placed 
above every other consideration — as soon as 
the free employment of the understanding is 
allowed, and men have learned to combine all 
the characters of a natural law. 

How does the universality of natural laws ap- 
pear'* 

They are the same in every country. Che- 
1* 



6 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

mistry has no other laws in France than it has 
in England, or in any other part of the earth; 
carbonic acid gas kills men in the north and 
in the south, in the east and in the west; com- 
binations of color unharmonious in any one 
country, will not please the eye viewed by the 
sun of any other; the same laws pervade the 
music of every nation, of the English, French, 
Italians, Germans, &c. 

How are the natural laws invariable? 

They have been the same in all ages. The 
principle of the lever, at the present time, is 
' precisely the same as it was when the Phara- 
ohs and Ptolemies lived; the rules of geome- 
try and arithmetic have suffered no change 
since they were applied by Euclid and Ar- 
chimedes; the beautiful forms of the Grecian 
marbles are still beautiful; goodness since the 
beginning has not ceased to be beneficent, and 
so on. Our knowledge may be more or less 
extensive, more or less exact, but the laws 
themselves never vary. 

How are the natural laws harmonious? 

The Creator has contrived all things as parts 
of a grand whole, and combined all his enact- 



GENERALITIES. 7 

ments in perfect harmoniousness. Natural 
laws are, consequently, mutually aidant. It is 
ignorance alone that prompts us occasionally 
to fancy discrepancies among them. The laws 
of vegetation act in accordance with those of 
animalization. The fruits and substance of 
plants yield food to innumerable tribes of ani- 
mals, and the excretions and the dead bodies 
of animals in return afford aliment to the in- 
finite variety of vegetables that adorn the earth. 
The principle, that nothing is useless, is true 
physically, as it is morally. Hence it follows, 
that philosophy is to seek for, determine, and 
expose the harmony of the natural code. 

Jlre all inanimate and all living beings subject 
to natural laivs't 

All beings whatsoever have a determinate 
nature; all phenomena appear in conformity 
with fixed and invariable laws. Any opinion 
to the contrary is fraught with danger to man- 
kind. 

But do not we degrade the being — man, for 
instance — whose nature we pronounce to be dfe- 
terminate ? 

Most certainly we do not. The nature of 



8 NATURAL LAWS OF J^AN". 

the Supreme being himself is determinate; he, 
for instance, cannot desire evil, for his nature 
is perfection. Now we can more readily con- 
ceive beings he made and endowed according 
to his pleasure possessed of a determinate na- 
ture. Without this indeed, there would be rr 
regularity in their functions. 

•fls the natural laws are no where to be found 
reduced to writing, how can we he certain of 
having discovered them? 

Observation and induction will lead secure- 
ly to their knowledge. We shall recognise 
them certainly when they possess all the dis- 
tinguishing characters. 

Jlre the natural laws conformable to reason? 
They must necessarily be so. They pro- 
duce certain never-varying effects; whatever 
is undertaken in conformity with their decreer 
prospers, and penalty is always in proportioi 
to their infringement. 

Must not natural laws also be divine? 
As they exist, they are evidently effects ol 
the will of the Creator, or God. 

Is there any cause to apprehend , from the doc- 
trine of the natural laws, the introduction of such 



GENERALITIES. V 

evils as attended on the systems of government 
called Theocracies! 

The self-elected and presumed interpreters 
of a revelation have always had much better 
opportunities of acting arbitrarily, and of en- 
forcing belief, than can fall to the lot of the 
proposers of natural laws. The priesthood 
has generally taught dogmatically, and inter- 
dicted the use of reason. Natural law, on the 
contrary, is submitted to the free scrutiny of 
all, and is appreciated in great part by means 
of reason: every one, so inclining, may, under 
the guidance of observation, be convinced of 
the reality of its several propositions. There 
is nothing but good to be anticipated from the 
study of the natural law. 

Have not the made and artificial laws of men 
the distinguishing features of those which are 
natural! 

Enacted by beings who may err themselves, 
i or who, from various motives, may wish to de- 
ceive and to lead others into error, they are 
often founded on caprice, and on partial con- 
siderations; they are frequently modified by 
local and individual circumstances; they vary 



10 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

in every nation, and have changed with the 
different epochs in the history of each. Such 
a law would not have been instituted, had not 
such a man lived or such an event happened. 
The act which the arbitrary law of one coun- 
try approves, is often condemned by the made 
code of another. It has even happened, that 
laws simultaneously imposed have been mutu- 
ally subversive. They are frequently repug- 
nant to good sense, and they have also been 
unjust; for they have conferred immunities and 
privileges on individuals, have attached re- 
wards and punishments by no means commen- 
surate to the extent of virtuous conduct, or 
the magnitude of criminal actions, and have 
ranked as virtues and as vices actions altogeth- 
er insignificant or purely indifferent. 

Can society neglect positive lawk — that is to 
say, rides of conduct which, clearly announced, 
are binding on all its members? 

No; there are few who maybe left to them- 
selves, to their good pleasure, to their inclina- 
tions and their judgments. The majority of 
mankind requires positive laws for its direction, 



GENERALITIES. 11 

ad frequent admonition as to what is to be 
done and what left alone. 
Wherefore is this? 

Because of the generally deficient strength 

of the sentiments which dictate the Moral 

Law, and the true rule of conduct in the world. 

Admitting the necessity of a positive code then, 

is there any essential difference between natural 

1 and positive laws? 

There ought to be none. The natural laws 
should be promulgated as positive and obliga- 
tory on all. Unfortunately, this is not done. 
The positive laws of society are even too fre- 
quently the very opposite of those which the 
I Creator dictates. 

How may the artificial laivs be subdivided? 
Into arbitrary or absolute, and into conven- 
tional. The former are the result of the good 
pleasure of the ruler, the others are fixed up- 
on by the agreement of several legislators. 
What titles are given to the transgression of 
i any law whatever? 

As regards religion, Sin, and as concerns 
j civil enactments, Crime. These are the most 
i comprehensive terms in use. 



1£ NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

Do transgressions of the law, or sins and 
crimes, admit of degrees of gravity? 

That they do is a point admitted by all le- 
gislators, civil as well as religious. 

What title is given to the consequence of the 
infringement of a law? 

Evil. 

Are there many and various hinds of evil? 

Evil is first physical, or it is moral; then it 
is individual, or general; lastly it is temporal, 
or eternal. 

Jire not these different kinds of evil linked to- 
gether and inseparable ? 

Physical and moral evil engender each other 
mutually. Individuals and society are con- 
nected and in relation; and, according to the 
christian religion, our fate through eternity 
depends on the present life. 

Does it ever happen that man suffers innocent- 
ly; that is to say, for the transgression of a law 
in ignorance of its existence? 

It occurs frequently, and in reference to 
the whole of the three kinds of natural laws. 
The punishments, too, are always as severe 
as if merited by wilful neglect. Belladonna 



GENERALITIES. 13 

kills him who knows not, as well as him who 
knows, its poisonous quality, the man of gen- 
ius and the fool, the pious and the impious. 
All suffer alike who infringe, as all without 
exception prosper who obey, the natural laws. 

Is the study of man a study of great impor- 
tance? 

What of so much? Man is at the head of 
the terrestrial creation. He alone examines 
the causes of natural phenomena and imitates 
many of them. He alone elevates his thoughts 
to the conception of a first cause, and is sus- 
ceptible of moral and religious ideas. 

What is the great object of the philosophy of 
man? 

To determine accurately the fundamental 
powers of the human mind, and to ascertain 
the conditions under which these are exhibited; 
to indicate the causes of the functions vari- 
ously modified in individuals; and to show the 
necessity of man's as well as of every other 
created being's submission to the laws which 
the Creator imposes to enjoy happiness and to 
secure success in his undertakings. 

Is the agency of the natural law suspended, 

because of man's living in society? 

o 



14 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

By no means. Man was destined to live in 
society, and obedience to one natural ordina- 
tion cannot render another ineffective. The 
Creator has laid down certain laws for man's 
social state, adherence to which is indispensa- 
ble to his happiness, under whatever circum- 
stances he may chance to be placed. 

Is mankind happy? 

To whatever side we turn our eyes, the un- 
fortunate, and miserable, and discontented 
meet our view. There are very few indeed 
who are happy. 

Wherein consists the happiness of man? 

In the satisfaction of his faculties. 

Does the happiness of men differ; or, is that 
which gratifies one, calculated to be agreeable 
to all? 

Happiness differs universally according to 
individual constitution. There are as many 
distinct species of happiness and pleasure, as 
there are fundamental faculties; and men be- 
ing unlike in mental endowment, the cause 
of happiness in one case is frequently a source 
of disgust in a second, and is unnoticed as 
either in a third. 



GENERALITIES. 15 

We cannot, therefore, find any measure of the 
happiness of others, in taking ourselves as 
standards? 

Certainly we cannot; because the faculties 
are not equally nor alike active in all men. 

In what does the misery of man consist? 

In the non-satisfaction of his faculties. 

Then the causes of the misery of man are dif- 
ferent, are they not? 

They vary according to the faculty or fac- 
ulties which are active, and which are not 
satisfied. 

What is the principal cause of the unhappiness 
of man? 

Ignorance and transgression of the natural 
law. 

It appears, therefore, that to hioiv and to 
practise the natural law is extremely important? 

As evil consists in its transgression, and 
good in its accomplishment, and as its in- 
fringement is the principal cause of man's 
I unhappiness, the natural law ought to be made 
a principal study with every individual; it 
should be learned by heart, and its precepts 
never lost si^ht of in the business of life. 



16 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

How may the natural laics of man be subdi- 
vided ? 

Into three kinds, after the threefold nature 
of his functions, viz. Vegetative, Intellectual, 
and Moral. 

Do these three kinds of laws exert a mutual in- 
fluence ? 

They do, and it is of much importance not 
to confound the fundamental faculties in which 
they inhere, with the products of the mutual 
influence of those faculties, nor the existence 
of three kinds of laws with their reciprocal 
relations. 



SECTION I. 

OF THE VEGETATIVE LAWS OF MAN. 

What natural laws of man are Vegetative? 

Those which concern the preservation of 
his body are so entitled. 

How may these laws be divided? 

Into two orders, having for their objects 
respectively, 

1st, The preservation of the individual; 

2nd, The preservation of the species. 

What are the most important of the natural 
laws that relate to the preservation of individuals? 

1st, A good innate constitution, and 2nd, 
The laws of dietetics, which include tempera- 
ture, light, air, food, cleanliness, exercise, and 
repose. 

Is not a perfect attention to the laws of diet- 
etics indispensable to health? 

Yes; a certain quantity of caloric is neces- 
sary to life, but it injures the bodily health in 
too great abundance or too great scarcity. 
2* 



18 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

Cold engenders many complaints, not only 
among the poor, but also among the rich. 
The impossibility of guarding against sudden 
changes of temperature, and the imprudence 
with which all expose themselves to these, 
are causes of innumerable diseases. The 
quality of the air man breaths also influences 
his bodily state. Carbonic acid gas suppres- 
ses the vital functions, hydrogen retards, and 
oxygen accelerates them ; marsh miasmata pro- 
duce diseases, &c. Air free from all putrid 
or other exhalations is necessary to enable man 
to exercise his various attributes v/ith energy. 

How may the dietetic laws that relate to Ali- 
mentation be considered? 

Either as the quantity or the quality of ali- 
mentary matter is concerned. 

^Does the quality of man's food deserve atten- 
tion? 

It should be accommodated to age, tempera- 
ment, climate, and season; and should vary 
with the prevailing weather, and the state of 
health of the individual. Whatever is easily 
digested is wholesome, whatever is not is per- 
nicious. Many enactments of ancient legisla- 



VEGETATIVE LAWS. 19 

tors show their sense of the propriety of reg- 
ulating the quality of aliment. Religious law- 
givers seem also to have had the same end in 
view, when they pronounced certain kinds of 
food to be clean, and certain others to be un- 
clean. Pork in the warm countries of the 
East is unwholesome, and the Jews and Ma- 
hometans are forbidden by a religious com- 
mandment to eat of it. 

Does the general law in regard to the salubrity 
of aliments vary in different countries? 

In every climate the general law is the same: 
such food is universally to be used as may be 
digested with ease. But aliment varies in kind 
in every different country; and as food, by an- 
other natural law, must always harmonise with 
the particular circumstances of existence, 
with age, temperament, climate, &x. such 
things cannot be proper, in lands where the 
excessive heat and light of the sun stimulate 
the vital functions greatly, as are wholesome 
and even necessary in regions where fogs and 
frost and darkness cramp the energies of man. 

There is nothing then clean or unclean in 
itselfl 



20 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

Nothing. Every thing, however, may de- 
serve either title by its employment in general 
or in particular cases. 

Are the dietetic rules of the Jews of Palestine, 
and of the Egyptians, adapted to the nations of 
the norths 

By no means. To prescribe the same- 
course of diet to the inhabitants of every coun- 
try of the globe, would not be less absurd than 
to command the same material, and the same 
form, for the garments of the Esquimaux, Eu- 
ropean, and native of Senegal. 

How is the natural law, having reference to 
quantity of food, entitled'! 

Sobriety or Temperance. 

Is this law of much importance ? 

It exerts a powerful influence upon the well- 
being of individuals. The sober man digests 
easily, his body is properly nourished, and he 
is ever in a condition to attend to his affairs. 

What crimes are committed against Sobriety? 

Gluttony and Drunkenness. 

What evils attend on the first of these? 

A long train of ills wait upon gluttony. It 
injures the health, and weakens the digestive 



VEGETATIVE LAWS. 21 

powers; or it brings on obesity, unfits the body 
for its duties, obscures the powers of the 
mind, and occasions every species of incon- 
venience. 

What evils accompany the second crime against 
Sobriety ? 

The consequences which attend drunken- 
ness are nearly similar, but greater in degree. 
Drunkenness undermines the health, enfeebles 
digestion, and reduces its unhappy votary to 
the level of the brutes; it deprives him of the 
distinctions of humanity, which his Creator 
had given for his guidance, rendering him 
equally unfit for business and unworthy of 
trust; and, making him quarrelsome and un- 
reasonable, it fills his home with misery and 
disorder. 

What is the natural law which forbids the 
abuse of solid or liquid aliment^ 

It is the law of Abstinence. 

Does this law absolutely forbid all food what- 
ever for a season , or certain kinds of food, as 
wine, entirely"? 

It does no more than interdict those things 
that are noxious, and the abuse of those which 



22 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

are good and proper. But this simple and sal- 
utary interpretation has been abandoned; 
sound views and excellent laws have been mis- 
understood, and changed into superstitious ob- 
servances — the original aim of their institution 
has indeed been very generally lost sight of al- 
together. To subdue their animal appetites, 
the inhabitants of Roman Catholic countries 
are commanded to eat no flesh on certain days 
of the week, but they may still drink wine, live 
upon fish, with rich and stimulating sauces, 
on eggs, lobsters, and various shell-fish. Now 
sensualism is in fact more excited by such al- 
iments than by the flesh of animals plainly 
dressed. The Mahometans are forbidden to 
drink wine, but they still may intoxicate them- 
selves by the unrestrained use of coffee, 
opium, and tobacco; during the Rhammadan, 
they are commanded to touch neither solid nor 
liquid food from sunrise to sunset, by a re- 
striction which, however, allows them to revel 
. in debauchery from sunset to sunrise, &c. 

Are certain days indicated by the natural law 
as proper to be observed as fasts? 

Sobriety and the law of Abstinence, are 



VEGETATIVE LAWS. 23 

never to be interrupted in their agency , never 
to be departed from. No specific day, or nurn- 
.ber of days, are pointed out by the natural 
law as especial Fasts. We must ever eat and 
.drink that we may live, not live that we may 
. eat and drink. The laws of hunger and thirst 
exist; and he who obeys not their calls in due 
season and at fitting time, is as much guilty of 
a breach of the divine will, as he who abuses 
them by brutal indulgence. 

Does it not follow from this, that the laws of 
sobriety , and abstinence or fasting, are to be en- 
forced, not to please the Creator, but purely to 
advantage man? 

The first interpretation is the effect of igno- 
rance, and is repugnant to good sense. These 
natural laws have no other end but the happi- 
ness of individuals, and of the kind at large, 
and as they exert a powerful influence over 
the health, the habitual dispositions, and the 
momentary affections of the mind, they ought 
to be taught and made universally known. 
Man, it is evident, feels his bodily as well as 
his mental state to vary during a fast, and 
after a hearty meal. A cup of strong coffee, 



24 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

or a glass of generous wine, gives more or 
less activity both to the body and to the mind. 
Aliment is the principal cause of the organic 
constitution, on which depends the degree of 
energy possessed by the fundamental faculties' 
of the body and mind. Without a body and a 
brain, there is no exhibition of vegetative or | 
mental phenomena in this world ; without food 
there can be neither body nor brain. — Hence j 
the importance of the natural laws of alimenta-| 
tion. 

Was the importance of the law of Sobriety 
known to the ancients! 

The rules of dietetics among them constitu- 
ted a great part of moral science, and of the: 
revealed commandments. This proves suffi-| 
ciently the attention they bestowed on them,! 
and the degree of importance they attached; 
to their observance. 

Are not the laws of bodily exercise also to be 
carefully observed! 

Bodily exercise is useful at every period of 
life; it is, however, more especially so during; 
youth, and the years of corporeal develop- 
ment. 



VEGETATIVE LAWS. 25 

Has attention to the law of cleanliness any 
influence on individuals ? 

Cleanliness, as it tends to keep up free cuta- 
neous transpiration — a process absolutely ne- 
cessary to perfect health, demands sedulous 
cultivation. Those who are very cleanly in 
their persons and in their houses, are more 
healthy than those who are slovenly, and live 
amid filth. 

What bad consequences result from a neglect 
of the natural law of cleanliness ? 

These are very numerous. Cutaneous dis- 
eases, malignant fevers, and contagious influ- 
ences generally, are engendered ; and various 
insects — those disgusting appendages of filth 
and poverty — are encouraged to multiply. 

Did the ancients give any heed to the laws of 
cleanliness ? 

By ranking attention to cleanliness among 
the religious virtues, and its neglect among the 
sins, and by instituting ablutions and purifica- 
tions, ancient lawgivers had demonstrated 
their knowledge of the good and evil effects 
attendant on the observance or neglect of its 
law. 

3 



26 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

How are the laws that especially interest the 
preservation of the species named ? 

The laws of hereditary descent ; for parents 
exercise a mighty influence over the physical 
condition of their offspring. General constitu- 
tion, bodily qualities, individual peculiarities, 
diseases, &c. are transmitted from sires to sons. 
What are the conditions required to accom- 
plish the laws of hereditary descent ? 

Every person ought to have attained com- 
plete growth, and mature solidity of fibre, and 
also to be in possession of confirmed good 
health, before putting himself into the way of 
having a family. Those who marry too young 
ruin their health, and procreate miserable, 
dwarfish, and weakly children, whose lives are 
useless to the commonwealth, and burthen- 
some to themselves. Those, again, who have 
passed the meridian of life, or have suffered 
from debilitating causes, before marriage, have 
also an infirm and degenerate family. 

What then should induce abnegation of mar- 
riage ? 

No one who has the seeds of hereditary dis- 
ease, such as scrofula, consumption, insanity, 



VEGETATIVE LAWS. 27 

gout, stone, &x. See. lurking in his constitu- 
tion, ought to marry. 

Do not individuals j sprung from the same 
stock, commit a grave error when they inter- 
marry'! 

Marriages between near relations are very 
frequently sterile, or the progeny is bastardiz- 
ed, unpromising, and oftentimes idiotic. For 
this reason it was that several ancient legisla- 
tors interdicted such unions. Like misfor- 
tunes, although in a less degree, afflict the 
families that intermarry for a long period of 
time. The offspring speedily feels a deterio- 
rating influence; its physical and moral pow- 
ers are enfeebled by degrees, and the race is 
ultimately extinguished. 

Wliat is the most important moment for the 
body of living beings ? 

It is the moment of receiving existence. 
The form, dimensions, and texture of the 
body and its parts, the energy of the vegeta- 
tive functions, and the whole fate of the fu- 
ture being, in regard to health, disease, &,c. 
depend on this instant. 

Marriages ought therefore to be better assort- 



28 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

ed than they are at present, were it merely to 
benefit the physical part of man's nature? 

Greater attention in this particular would 
spare much sorrow to families. A dwarfish and 
sickly offspring is in itself a dreadful misfor- 
tune, and very often poisons all the pleasures of 
existence to parents. 

Submission to the laws of hereditary descent 
appears to be of the first-rate importance — does 
it not? 

General as well as individual happiness is 
implicated in their observance. Attention to 
their dictates will influence the improvement of 
the species far more than any measure be- 
sides that can be taken, and will consequently 
do more to advantage general happiness than 
any other exactment whatsoever. The laws 
of hereditary descent exist ; those who submit 
will be happy and blessed in their offspring, 
those who neglect them, though they them- 
selves escape, will have prepared abundant 
cause of misery to their children and to poster- 
ity. 

Hoiv comes it that so little attention has hither- 
to been paid to the laws of hereditary descent in 
contracting marriage! 



VEGETATIVE LAWS. 29 

Ignorance may in part be blamed, and the 
dominion of inferior inclinations, particularly 
of acquisitiveness, love of approbation, and 
self esteem, may very fairly be charged with 
the rest of the transgressions committed against 
them. 

Ought not the laws of hereditary descent to be 
taught, then ? 

They ought, as soon as young people can 
understand how they themselves came into the 
world. Knowledge of these laws could not fail 
to produce the most beneficial effects; for even 
personal views would unite with nobler and 
higher considerations, to make the youth avoid 
acts and connections that might bring misery 
to dwell with them for the remainder of their 
lives. But even admitting the impossibility of 
finding means that would succeed completely 
in opening men's eyes — acknowledging the 
probable continuance of the reign of disorder, 
we are nevertheless to use every effort in pro- 
mulgating knowledge, which, acted upon, 
would render mankind better and more happy. 
The laws of hereditary descent occupy a place 
in the foremost rank of importance, and ought 
3* 



30 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

never to be lost sight of by the well wishers of 
humanity. 

What points does the law, in its most com- 
prehensive signification, that governs the phy- 
sical part of man's nature, comprise ? 

The doing whatever may contribute to the 
development and preservation of the body, 
the avoiding all that may militate against this, 
the putting the corporeal state into harmony 
with the exhibition of the intellectual and moral 
laws, or, in the religious language of the an- 
cients, in making the body a temple and an 
instrument of Intellect and Morality. 

Is practice of the vegetative laws necessary ? 

The existence of these laws and the neces- 
sity of submitting to them are synonymous. 
Without this, man can never prosper or be 
happy ; without this, the accomplishment of 
the moral and intellectual laws is impossible. 
The importance, nay the necessity, of con- 
forming strictly to all they ordain, follows ir- 
resistibly as a corollary. 



SECTION II. 

OF THE INTELLECTUAL LAWS OF MAN. 

What is the essence of Intelligence, or Under- 
standing ? 

It is, to know. The Intellect alone ac- 
quires knowledge, of whatever kind it be. 

In what does Intelligence consist — or, what is 
Intelligence ? 

Intelligence is a word which, at one time, 
designates a personified principle which knows ; 
at another, no more than an attribute of a prin- 
ciple — the faculty of knowing; sometimes also 
the name is used to signify the functions col- 
lectively which have place with consciousness. 

In what are philosophers agreed, in their dis- 
cussions upon intelligence, and in what do they 
differ ? 

All agree as to the effects of Intellect ; for 
all assign to it every species of knowledge, — to 
know is its nature: but differences occur, as to 
what it is that knows, as to the objects known, 



32 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

the conditions necessary to knowledge, and the 
various degrees of certainty of our knowledge. 

What opinion is the most generally entertained 
as to that which knows ? 

The greatest number of philosophers speak 
of, and admit, an incorporeal something, in- 
habiting man's body, which knows. Others, 
however, consider knowledge as a function or 
product of certain organic structures. 

How are these two classes of philosophers en- 
titled ? 

The partizans of the first opinion are called 
Spiritualists, those of the second, Materialists. 

What was the literal meaning of the word 
among the Greeks and Romans, which corres- 
ponds to Spirit or Soul among the moderns ? 

Air, or breath. 

Jind by what name is the doctrine of the incor- 
poreal something of man's constitution designa- \ 
ted? 

It is termed Psychology, from the Greek 
-^vyp soul, and Aoyo$ discourse or doctrine. 

What are the ideas most generally entertained 
concerning this incorporeal part of man ? 

That it inhabits our mortal body, by the me- J 



INTELLECTUAL LAWS. 33 

dium or assistance of which its operations are 
variously manifested, and from which it is separ- 
ated at death, to change its habitation. 

By ivhat name have some modern French phi- 
losophers entitled the vis, or power which knows 
and the result of its activity or knowledge? 

They have called the power which knows ? 
Sensibility, without paying further attention 
to its nature, its actual state, or its destiny ; 
and to the product of sensibility, that is, knowl- 
edge, they have given the general title 3 Sensa- 
tion. 

Can we, by reasoning, arrive at conclusions on 
the nature of that which knows, on its manner of 
acting, or on its final destination? 

These are purely subjects of religious belief 
and history shows that opinions, the most con- 
tradictory and unlikely, have been promulgated 
and received in regard to them. 

What conclusion is to be drawn- from this 
fact? 

That every individual is to have full permis- 
sion to believe that which to him seems good 
and proper, provided neither individual nor gen- 
eral happiness be compromised. 



34 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

Announcing the fact — Man Knows, — what 
points are especially to be attended to in exam- 
ining his knowledge! 

It is necessary above all things to determine 
accurately that which he can, and that which 
he cannot know; to specify the various sorts 
of knowledge, and indicate the conditions un- 
der which each may be acquired; to establish 
the natural laws, or the regularity with which 
every thing happens; and thus to found on a 
sure basis the happiness of individuals and of 
the human kind. 

What can man know! 

Strict reason demonstrates that he only 
knows his individual identity, and the modified 
conditions of his self. Plain sense says that 
man knows, first, his existence, many parts 
which constitute his frame, many internal 
functions, called feelings and intellect, or af- 
fective and intellectual faculties; — Moreover, 
that he knows a great number of externa 1 ob- 
jects, as existences; that he further knows theii 
physical qualities, their mutual relations, and 
their relations with himself and with others; 
lastly, that he knows regularity, or the laws 
of all the knowledge he possesses. 



INTELLECTUAL LAWS. 35 

How may the external objects of human know- 
ledge be divided ? 

Into Matters, and Spirits or Souls. 

What, according to the ancients, are the char- 
acteristics of matter, and of spirit or soul ? 

Matter was characterized by its inertia, 
and certain qualities styled physical, such as 
form, size, weight, and impenetrability. Spirit, 
on the other hand, was distinguished by its 
formlessness, and its power of conferring ac- 
tivity on matter. 

Have opinioms on these points been constant ? 

No. Mankind have not at all times recog- 
nized the same number either of elementary 
matters or spirits. Simple substances were 
long confined to four, but modern chemistry 
in its progress has augmented the quantity 
prodigiously. 

Under what forms does matter occur in the 
world ? 

It exists in the solid, liquid, aeriform or im- 
ponderable state. 

Are not researches upon matter in some of these 
conditions more especially difficult ? 

Researches upon imponderable bodies are 



36 NATURAL LAWS . OP MAN. 

particularly so ; for matter in this state is in- 
timately connected with the personified prin- 
ciples which act in the human body ; and 
here, observation and induction, the sole guides 
to certainty, abandon the investigator. 

What difference is there between matter gener- 
ally and an organized body ? 

Matter may, 1st, be simple ; an organized 
body is always compounded : 

2nd, Matter has not been engendered, and 
has no generative power ; organized bodies 
are products of previously existing individu- 
als, their like : 

3rd, Matter of different kinds, however 
mingled, chemically or mechanically, can 
never exhibit vital functions after the manner 
of an organized body. 

What are the points of resemblance between 
matter generally and organized bodies ; accord- 
ing to ancients ? 

1st, Inertia, and 

2nd, Each being actuated by immaterial 
causes or spirits. 

To what has the organizing power of the body 
been ascribed by the old philosophers , and with 
what degree of accuracy ? 



INTELLECTUAL LAWS. 37 

To the soul or spirit. But this conclusion 
is not probably correct. A beautiful body fol- 
lows not necessarily as a consequence of a 
superior soul, and many very plain persons at- 
tach our good opinion, and gain our confidence 
by their amiable tempers and general good 
qualities. 

What is it impossible for man to knoiv? 

It is certain that he can know nothing in it- 
self, neither the essence of his own nature, nor 
that of external objects. The self of the con- 
scious man is nothing more to him than an ob- 
ject of observation. Farther man cannot know, 
either the beginning or the end, or final desti- 
nation of aught that is; he can only observe 
what is, the conditions under which it is, and 
the regularity with which the phenomena hap- 
pen. His knowledge is merely phenomenal. 

In what way can man know, or acquire know- 
ledge ? 

Only by observing and inducing; for reflec- 
tion will no more reveal to man his own na- 
ture, than it will give him information of ex- 
ternal objects, with their physical qualities and 
their relations. The study of man bv the 
4 



38 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

a priori method, or reflection, has retarded the 
knowledge of his nature extremely. Every 
one who entered on the subject assuming him- 
self as the type of the whole species, confound- 
ed his own peculiarities with the essential or 
general constitution of humanity; as if one 
blind from birth should do well in imagining 
all mankind similarly circumstanced. Hence 
arose as many systems of mental philosophy 
as there were thinkers. 

What can man know of his own nature? 

First, his body, its constituent parts, its 
functions, the laws of its preservation, and the 
laws of propagation; further, his own affective 
and intellectual operations, and those of his 
fellow men; lastly, the conditions necessary 
to the manifestation of these, and the regulari- 
ty or laws according to which they appear or 
are produced. 

Man then, it appears, is destined to know? 

The law of nature proclaims that he is. In- 
telligence is as essential a part of man as his \ 
body. Without it, neither individuals nor the 
species could be preserved or continued. 

Intelligence being an inherent part of human 
nature, why do some oppose its cultivation? 



INTELLECTUAL LAWS. 39 

All who do so are to be regarded with a 
very suspicious eye. They are such as would 
> lead mankind blindfolded, and obedient to their 
arbitrary will and pleasure, for selfish and sin- 
j ister ends. It is unquestionably much easier 
t to render the ignorant and uncultivated subser- 
i vient to unworthy purposes, than the instruct- 
[ ed and reasoning man. Knowledge, too, and 
I the habit of reflection, detect errors which 
pride and selfishness would willingly keep con- 
cealed. The abuses or misapplication of in- 
; tellect have also been confounded with intel- 
lect itself. Now, intellect only supplies the 
means of executing, it gives not the motive or 
aim of the action. — As religion is not the less 
respectable because of the crimes committed 
in its name, neither is intellect because of its 
abuses. 

Is it not reasonable then to cultivate the under- 
standing! 

The cultivation of the Intellect, provided 
justice and truth be made the objects of re- 
search, is not only reasonable, but is a prime 
duty. 

What is the second natural law of Intelligence? 



40 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

It is this: The different manifestations of 
man are inexplicable, on the supposition of 
one simple cause; in other words: Man in his 
nature possesses determinate, specific, and dis- 
tinct causes of his different modes of feeling 
and thinking. 

How do they, who admit the entity self, explain 
man's different hinds of knowledge"! 

By supposing this agent, self, endowed with 
a number of primary faculties; they also re- 
cognize various conditions, as necessary to the 
exhibition of mental phenomena. 

What is the usual division of the primary fac- 
ulties of the agent, self? 

It is into Understanding and Will; a divi- 
sion which has been recognized from remote 
antiquity, and differently entitled — Head and 
Heart, Spirit and Flesh, Intellect and Moral 
Faculties, Modes of Thinking and Modes of 
Feeling. 

What is the meaning of the word, Will? 

To Will various meanings are attached. 
Philosophers commonly understand by it, all 
desires collectively, and all degrees in any 
particular desire, from simple inclination up to 



INTELLECTUAL LAWS. 41 

passion. Hence they speak of weak and of 
strong wills; and farther, of good and of bad 
wills also. 

Will, again, sometimes denotes the desire 
which predominates. Feeling one inclination; 
if another arise and overcome the former, the 
second is called Will. 

There is still another kind of Will, which 
may be called enlightened, because it implies 
a desire approved of by intelligence. 

Is willy as designating desires, not confined to 
the faculties which experience Sentiments? 

No; for, that every faculty, being active, 
desires, is a perfectly general proposition, and 
therefore includes such faculties as procure 
knowledge also. ♦ 

Seeing that the philosophical nomenclature is 
so faidiy, and that those facidties that know, de- 
sire or manifest Will, would it not he well to 
give a distinguishing title to all the powers that 
merely excite feelings without acquiring any know- 
ledge? 

Certainly it would. And as the faculties 
which do not know, produce especially what 

are called affections, affective faculties will ac* 

4# 



42 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

curately express their distinguishing nature. 

What knows, or takes cognizance of, the af- 
fective powers ? 

The Intellect. To know, is the peculiar 
and proper character of the faculties which 
enter into its constitution. 

How is the Intellect or the Understanding di- 
vided? 

It is commonly supposed to be possessed of 
certain attributes entitled faculties, such as 
Attention, Perception, Memory, Imagination, 
and Judgment. Occasionally the Understand- 
ing has been said to know, according to cer- 
tain forms or categories. Kant, for instance, 
observes that the Spirit or Intellect must re- 
present all it knows in space and time. 

How is Mention defined! 

Philosophers have considered Attention to 
be the primary faculty which acts in the acqui- 
sition of every sort of knowledge. 

Can Attention be truly esteemed a primary fac- 
idty of the mind? 

If it be, it behoves philosophers to show the 
causes of its various degrees and different 
kinds of activity. For one may manifest a pe- 



INTELLECTUAL LAWS. 43 

culiar sort of Attention strongly, another 
weakly, and be altogether incapable of ex- 
hibiting a third. Now all these facts are in- 
compatible with the philosophic idea of Atten- 
tion being a primary faculty. 
What is Mention then? 

Attention is the effect of the entity self arous- 
ed by the active state of the affective and 
intellectual faculties. Its strength is propor- 
tioned to the degree of energy of the acting 
powers, that is, of the powers which attend. 

Can we j on this showing, explain, ioky y with- 
out Mention, no one can succeed in any art or 
science? 

Readily. Attention is synonymous with ac- 
tivity, and certainly success is impossible with- 
out activity of the respective faculties. 

How is Perception defined? 

Perception, or Consciousness, according to 
philosophers, is that faculty which takes cog- 
nizance of impressions, whether external or 
internal. Each of these two orders of impres- 
sions includes many species, which may be 
perceived separately. We may hear and not 
see, see and not hear; we may perceive, or be 



44 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

conscious of, the forms of objects, and not of 
their dimensions and colors; perceive the har- 
mony of colors, and not of tones; be conscious 
of attachment and not of fear, of pride and not 
of benevolence ; and so on. Knowledge of any 
impression whatever, is Perception; there are 
consequently as many kinds of perception as 
of faculties which furnish impressions. 

What general title may be given to the organic 
conditions which procure impressions? 

The general term, Sense. Internal as well 
as external senses might then be spoken of 
with propriety; and perception — a common 
quality, would appear stripped of all preten- 
sions to rank as a primary faculty of mind. 

What is Memory? 

Memory is, by many philosophers, regarded 
as a fundamental power, but it is in truth noth- 
ing more than the repetition by intellectual 
faculties of previously received impressions. 
The species of memory therefore are as nu- 
merous as the faculties which know. The 
different kinds of memory, and the various de- 
grees of activity exhibited by each, are inex- 
plicable by the hypothesis of a simple cause; 



INTELLECTUAL LAWS. 45 

as inexplicable indeed as are the different spe- 
cies of knowledge on such a supposition. 

How comes it that attention strengthens Mem- 
ory 1 

Attention and Memory are alike effects of 
an active state of the faculties which know. 
Energetic actions of these, accompanied by 
clear perceptions, leave strong impressions, 
which are afterwards reproduced with more 
ease than such as have been so weak and tran- 
sient as to be but little noted. Moreover, the 
faculty which takes cognizance of the phenom- 
enal world, exercises an influeuce over the 
powers which know, and by exciting, better en- 
ables them to repeat their functions, and thus 
strengthens memory. 

| What is the mental phenomenon, entitled Rem- 
.iniscence? 

[ It is the consciousness of the repetition of 
any sensation or previously acquired know- 
ledge. 

Is Reminiscence a primary faculty? 

No, it is but an effect of a repetition of its 
.function by that faculty which takes cogni- 
zance of the phenominal world — Eventuality. 



46 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

What is understood by Imagination? 

Imagination is a word which is variously in- 
terpreted. Sometimes it is used to designate 
a faculty that makes man act spontaneously, 
and causes him to invent in any way. A me- 
chanician invents ingenious machines, a musi- 
cian composes musical pieces, a mathematician 
discovers new problems, — all is done by Im- 
agination. Sometimes the word denotes an 
exalted and peculiar manner of feeling, and in 
this sense, Imagination is a sentiment or dis- 
tinct affective faculty, capable of being com- 
bined with all the other faculties. 

Is there any primary faculty of Imagination 
taken as synonymous with the capacity of Inven- 
tion? 

None. It is only a consequence of the in- 
tellectual combined with the affective faculties, 
each in a high state of activity. 

Is there any primary faculty of Association? 

Many philosophers speak of such a funda- 
mental power, but it is a mere effect of sever- 
al distinct and varied causes; in other words, 
the actions of the primary faculties are associ- 
ated. Each being active, excites and acts 
along with one or two, or more, of the others. 



INTELLECTUAL LAWS. 47 

How is association among the intellectual fac- 
ulties styled? 

Association of Ideas. 

The mode of action, called Association, how- 

■ ever , is not confined to the intellectual faculties? 

It may be observed among the affective also, 
< and between the affective and intellectual pow- 

■ ers reciprocally. The mutual influence of the 
faculties is quite general. Any one whatso- 
ever in a state of activity may excite any one 

1 or any number of others. 

How is Judgment defined by philosophers ? 
It is considered as a primitive faculty, which 
compares perceived impressions, finds them 
'harmonious or discordant, and approves or 
disapproves of them. But Judgment is in fact 
a qualitive mode of action of the intellectual 
('faculties. Species of knowledge act on the 
| sentient being in conformity with certain laws, 
which however admit of modifications to a cer- 
tain extent. Now the faculties that know their 
appropriate impressions respectively, are af- 
fected in a manner which they approve or dis- 
approve, and in this way may be said to judge. 
Judgment, consequently, is only the announce- 



48 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

ment of the mode of being affected by im- 
pressions received and known. There are 
consequently as many kinds of Judgment as 
species of knowledge or faculties which know ; 
there is a Judgment in forms, another in col- 
ors, a third in tones, and so on; and Judgment 
individually depends on the special powers 
which appreciate forms, colors, tones, &c. 

Can Judgment be correctly spoken of as good 
or bad! 

The faculties are subject to certain laws, 
and their actions are either perfect or imper- 
fect. Good Judgment is the attendant of the 
first, bad Judgment of the second, state. He 
who listens to music, perceives the harmony 
of the tones, or he does not; and is thus pos- 
sessed or is not possessed of a musical judg- 
ment. He who has the faculties which are 
necessary to appreciate tones in their greatest 
state of perfection, has the best Judgment in 
music; and he who has them the least com- 
plete, has the worst Judgment in this particular. 
It is the same in regard to every other kind of 
knowledge. 

•Are the laws, according to ivhich different spe- 
cies of knowledge have place, arbitrary ? 



INTELLECTUAL LAWS. 49 

By no means; they present all the charac- 
ters of natural laws. They inhere in human 
nature, are essentially the same in all places 
and at all times, and harmonise with the whole 
of the vegetative and moral laws of man. Be 
it observed, however, that it is the essence 
alone of the faculties which is pervaded by this 
universal regularity. Modifications of the 
powers occur constantly and in great variety. 
Some actions, results of their activity, may 
be considered as good and excellent at one 
time, and bad and reprehensible at another. 
Certain kinds of knowledge, certain ideas, 
may prevail at particular periods; even errors 
may gain accredence and be in vogue, but 
truth and essential excellence will not therefore 
be annihilated; sooner or later, by one or an- 
other, they will be felt, and be made supreme. 

Are there not certain Judgments which are 
universally accounted good or had? 

Yes. All civilized men would say of him, 
who should feed on loathsome articles which 
could not nourish his body, that he had a bad 
taste. In the same way, he who admits ideas 
which are mutually contradictory, will be by 



50 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

all accounted to have a bad Judgment. On 
the other hand, the effects of certain intellect- 
ual operations will always meet approval. 
The music of Handel and of Mozart, the color- 
ing of Titian, the sculpture of the old Greeks, 
and the Christian system of morals, will secure 
approbation, so long as the feeling for the 
melody and harmony of sounds, capacity to 
perceive color, power to appreciate fine forms, 
and admiration of virtue, belong to, and form 
constituents in, the nature of man. 

Is reason a fundamental power of the mind? 

No, this term indicates the functions of 
Comparison and Casualty severally or in com- 
bination. 

What is the aim of reason? 

Reason is given to direct the functions of 
all the other special powers of the mind, and to 
bring them into harmony; without being guid- 
ed by reason, every faculty is liable to errors. 

Since reason is essential in preventing the er- 
rors of the other faculties , is it free from erring? 

Reason acts according to determinate prin- 
ciples, but it does not furnish the objects on 
which it operates, hence it will err each time 



INTELLECTUAL LAWS. $1 

when the premises or objects of its activity are 
not truly furnished. 

Since many mistakes have thus been made in 
regard to the powers of the mind, how can we, 
by reasoning, arrive at a knowledge of its special 
faculties? 

A faculty will, by reason, be recognized as 
special, 1st, when it exists in one species of 
animal and not in another. 

2d, When its manifestations are not in pro- 
portion to those of the other faculties, neither 
in the different sexes nor in the same indi- 
vidual. 

3d, When its manifestations may be singly 
healthy or singly diseased. 

4th, When its manifestations do not appear 
nor disappear simultaneously with those of the 
other powers. 

5th, W r hen it can alone, or singly repose. 

6th, When it is transmitted in a distinct 
manner from parents to children. 

The same mode of proof applies to the spe- 
cial affective, as well as the special intellectu- 
al, faculties. Observation and induction must 
lead to the knowledge of both. 



52 NATURAL LAWS OP MAN. 

How is the existence of any special faculty 
whatever to be proved by observation! 

By the recognition of a relation between 
special manifestation and particular organic 
apparatus. 

What are the affective faculties of man! 

f Desire of Life. 

* Desire of Meat and Drink. 

1. Sense of Destroying. 

2. Sense of Amativeness. 

3. Sense of Parental Love, or Love of Off- 
spring. 

4. Sense of Attachment. 

5. Sense of Habitation. 

6. Sense of Courage. 

7. Sense of Secresy. 

8. Sense of Acquiring or Collecting. 

9. Sense of Constructing. 

10. Sense of Cautiousness. 

11. Sense of Approbation and Notoriety. 

12. Sense of Self-esteem. 

13. Sense of Benevolence. 

14. Sense of Reverence. 

15. Sense of Firmness and Perseverance. 

16. Sense of Conscientiousness. 



INTELLECTUAL LAWS 53 

17. Sense of Hope. 

18. Sense of Marvellousness 

19. Sense of the Ideal and Perfect. 

20. Sense of Mirth and Humor. 

21. Sense of Imitation. 

What are the Intellectual faculties of man? 

1. Five external Senses which convey to 
him peculiar impressions of the external world. 

2. A faculty which personifies these impres- 
sions, and presents them as separate from the 
organs of external sense. This faculty seems 
to procure him notions of individual existence. 

3. Particular faculties which know the 
Physical Qualities of objects, as Configura- 
tion, Size, Weight, and Color. 

4. A particular faculty which knows what 
passes in objects and their qualities, that is, 
which cognizes the phenomenal world. The 
same faculty seems also to turn into knowledge 
all sensations felt in the body; as pain, fatigue, 
the necessity of different evacuations, cold, 
heat, and, lastly, the activity of all the affec- 
tive powers. 

5. Particular faculties which conceive no- 
tions of the Localities of objects, of Time or 

5* 



54 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

duration, whether of objects, or of phenomena 
and their succession; of Melody; of Number, 
whether of objects, qualities, phenomena, or 
tones; of Order, whether in objects, in physi- 
cal qualities, in phenomena, in localities, in 
succession, or in number. 

6. A particular faculty which cognizes An- 
alogy or Difference, Similitude or Dissimili- 
tude, and Identity, and establishes harmony; 
and another which appreciates the Causes of 
objects and of phenomena. 

7. A particular faculty which knows and 
presides over the signs of artificial language. 

What is understood by the Passions, and by 
the .Affections? 

These words denote modes of action of the 
primary faculties. Passion expresses the 
highest degree of their activity. Affection 
the mere general mode of their being affected. 

Then neither the Affections nor the Passions 
are primary powers of the mind? 

The preceding reply authorises a negative. 

How may the Affections be subdivied? 

1st, Into modes of quality and modes of 
quantity; in other words, the primary faculties 



INTELLECTUAL LAWS. 55 

may procure modified sensations, and they 
may be more or less active. 

2d, Affections are general, common, or spe- 
cial ; that is, certain modes of being affected 
belong to the whole of the primary powers, to 
several, to one only, and to each individually. 
Thus, Pleasure and Pain are general affec- 
tions. Memory belongs to the intellectual 
faculties in common, and Compassion is a 
special affection of the faculty of Benevo- 
lence. 

3d, Affections are simple or compound; that 
is to say, they result from the individual ac- 
tivity of one faculty, or from the simultaneous 
activity of several. For instance, Fear is a 
simple affection of the faculty of Circum- 
spection; Shame, a compound affection of 
the faculties of Justice and Love of Appro- 
bation. 

4th, Affections are agreeable or disagreea- 
ble. 

5th, Affections are common to animals and 
man, or they are proper and peculiar to man, 
as well as the faculties themselves which are 
their causes. 



56 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

WJien the Passions are spoken of, why do man- 
kind generally think of sensual pleasures and 
inferior sentiments, as love of notoriety, pride, and 
self-interestedness ? 

Because the affective powers in general, 
and those in particular, in which these incli- 
nations inhere, are commonly very energetic 
among men, and because their activity is ex- 
tremely dangerous to the peace and well-being 
of society. 

Concluding from what has gone before, how 
are the functions, designated as primary facul- 
ties in the schools of philosophy, to be regarded? 

Only as effects, or as modes of action in re- 
gard to quantity and quality of the mind's fun- 
damental powers. 

Jlnd what is to be thought of the philosophic 
nomenclature? 

That it is extremely defective. Every ex- 
pression has several significations, and none 
designates a cause or primary faculty, but 
merely an effect or action. 

What conclusion is to be drawn from this po- 
sition? 

That the ideas of the schools are inexact. 



INTELLECTUAL LAWS. 57 

Ideas and the signs that express them are in- 
timately related. Ideas precede, and as they 
are precise, signs follow correspondingly nu- 
merous and exact. 

The philosophical nomenclature requires a re- 
form, then"? 

It stands in great need of it, as well as 
philosophical principles themselves. 

In remodelling and determining the nomencla- 
ture of the philosophy of man, what course would 
be proper to pursue ? 

It would be necessary to assume signs to 
express, 

1st, Primary faculties. 

2d, Qualitive modes of action of the fac- 
ulties. 

3d, Degrees of activity, or quantitive modes 
of the faculties. 

4th, Modes of several faculties simulta- 
neously active. 

5th, Different actions resulting whether 
from primary faculties simply active, from 
their modes, of their mutual influence. 

To illustrate this procedure take Benevo- 
lence. — This sign denotes a primary faculty 



58 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

of the mind; Compassion designates a quali- 
tive mode of the power; Great, Much, Little, 
Weak, quantitive modes of the same; Equity 
its simultaneous activity with Justice, the infe- 
rior sentiments being subordinate; Christian 
Charity, its union with the whole of the pri- 
mary powers besides, in a perfect state of 
harmony. 

What generic name may be aptly used to ex- 
press every function of the affective and intellec- 
tual faculties'* 

Sensation will designate any degree of ac- 
tivity or other mode of every faculty. Every 
perceived impression is a species of Sensa- 
tion. 

How do Sensations become Conceptions or 
Ideas ? 

This happens by Intellect representing to 
itself sensation. One may perceive the sen- 
sation of hunger internally, and without say- 
ing C I am hungry;' knowledge of the exis- 
tence of sensations constitutes Conceptions or 
Ideas. 

What signification is attached to the word 
Ideal 



INTELLECTUAL LAWS. 59 

This term has been the subject of much 
discussion. Etymologically considered, it 
signifies, image or figure; but in this accepta- 
tion there are not many Ideas; odors, tastes, 
colors, are all excluded. Besides, by the 
dominant philosophy of the present day, and 
in opposition to Aristotle, impressions, and not 
images, are maintained to be perceived by the 
Soul. Several philosophers have also extend- 
ed the meaning of the word Idea, and made it 
to signify Knowledge of all external impres- 
sions. But when the etymological significa- 
tion is once abandoned, there can be no reason 
for not calling knowledge, both of external 
and internal impressions, Idea. One might 
then have an Idea of hunger, of fear, and of 
anger, as well as of color, sound, figure, or 
dimension. 

What is the third natural law of Intelligence'? 

It is as follows: the knowledge .of man's 
.mental nature may become as exact and posi- 
tive as that of his physical constitution. 

What are the principal points to be noted, 
touching man's mental nature? 

They are, 1st, The primary faculties that 
enter into its position. 



60 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

*2d, The origin of these. 

3d, The fixed laws of their functions. 

4th, The causes of modifications of their 
functions. 

5th, The moral and religious laws. 

What is the true method of proving the exis- 
tence of the primary faculties which constitute 
man's mental part? 

It is still observation and induction. Phi- 
losophers have long disputed upon the special 
faculties of the human mind. From time to 
time, a greater or smaller number has been 
admitted, but all that has yet been written or 
said has not been applicable beyond the limit- 
ed sphere of individual conviction. When by 
observation the relations which subsist be- 
tween the cerebral apparatus and the special 
powers of the mind shall have been demon- 
strated, the philosophy of man will become a 
positive and invariable science. 

Physiology is therefore useful and aidant in the 
philosophy of man 1 

Physiology and the Philosophy of Mind are 
two sciences inseparable. They are mutually 
accompletive. 



INTELLECTUAL LAWS. 61 

What are the characteristics of exact know- 
ledge ? 

Exact knowledge is characterized in the 
same way as the natural laws. That which is, 
is, has been, and will be, demonstrable for ev- 
-er. It is of the highest importance to be con- 
vinced that truth and exact knowledge of every 
kind are, and must be in harmony. 

What is the origin of the primary faculties of 
hnan? 

They are innate in his constitution. 
j Has this truth been long known? 
i From the remotest antiquity. The ancients 
even went so far as to maintain that Ideas 
Were innate. 

What then is actually innate in man? 
I The essence of the primary powers, various 
capacities of activity, and peculiar modifications 
of function, according to sex or individuals. 

Have the faculties been, by all the schools, con- 
sidered as innate? 

No; many philosophers have maintained, 
^that man comes into the world a, tabula rasa, a 
smooth and fair surface, and that all his capaci- 
ties and actions are effects of external circum- 
stances. 

6 



62 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

What are the chief extraneous circumstances 
which have been believed to be the causes of man's 
actions'? 

Want, Society, Opportunity, Climate, Food, 
and, above all, Education. 

What is the extent of the influence of extrane- 
ous circumstances. 

They are often necessary to permit the ex- 
hibition of natural dispositions, but they can 
by no possibility produce any faculty; some- 
times too they develope innate capacity, and 
exercise the faculties. Further, Education 
may give a determinate bent to the innate 
powers; and make them elicit specific actions. 
— A Mussulman and a Christian are both de- 
vout from the same innate feeling, but the for- 
mer may think it his duty to make at least 
once in his life a pilgrimage to Mecca, and 
the latter to sing hymns in praise of God. 

How has the innateness of their simple dis- 
positions, or of their effects — actions, been ex- 
plained^ 

Their cause has been sought, sometimes in 
the presence of immaterial agents, named Spir- 
its or Souls, sometimes in organization; either 
generally, or in that of the abdominal and thora- 



INTELLECTUAL LAWS. 63 

cic viscera, of the external senses, and of the 
tbrain especially. 

How does determinate knowledge originate? 
i From the innate primary capacities which 
know, and the impressions which are known. 

Do all possess the innate primary faculties in 
equal degrees of activity ? 

No; experience proves that their energy va- 
ries extremely in different individuals. 

Whatis the cause of this diversity of endowment? 

It inheres partly in man, and partly belongs 
io extraneous circumstances. 

Whatis meant by an universal genius? 

He who could appreciate and acquire tho- 
roughly every species and variety of know- 
ledge, would be an universal genius. Genius 
.does not signify a special power of mind, but 
jthe highest degree of activity of any intellec- 
tual faculty. Now although we may conceive 
a being possessed of all the powers in their 
best and most energetic state, it is not proba- 
ble that any such has ever visited, or is ever 
jlikely to visit, the world. 

Is it possible or probable, that mankind may, 
in some future age, agree in their manners of feel- 
ing a. id thinking? 



64 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

As men are constituted at the present time, 
it must be admitted that they cannot agree, 
even upon the essentials of their mental func- 
tions, or of the judgments they pronounce. 
Harmony and unanimity, however, as essen- 
tials are concerned, will be possible, nay will 
prevail whenever the natural laws are recog- 
nized as the rules of conduct, and their com- 
mands are enforced and obeyed. But man- 
kind can never accord on the modifications of 
their affective and intellectual faculties. 

When we perceive that the corporeal and in- 
tellectual parts of man are governed by invaria- 
ble laws, can we suppose that his moral part, the 
most noble of all, is abandoned to chance — ab- 
stracted from the influence of all natural law? 

To think so is a grievous error, — an error 
that has been the source of many of the evils 
that afflict humanity. Man's moral nature is 
regulated by determinate laws. So vast is 
the importance and so great and salutary the 
influence, of this proposition, that it should 
become an article of universal belief among 
mankind. 



SECTION III. 



OF THE MORAL LAWS. 



Is man naturally a moral being? — that is, a 
being who, by his own nature, views his actions 
in relation to duty and justice? 

Yes: there is in his constitution an inherent 
sentiment, entitled Moral Conscience, which 
produces such an effect. 

Are the moral precepts of all men alike? 

No; for the act which is considered just in 
one country, is often looked on as unjust in 
another. 

What is the cause of this diversity of deci- 
sion? 

The sentiment of conscientiousness does not 
determine that which is just or unjust, it only 
feels the necessity of being just. The major- 
ity of mankind take for granted whatever they 
are told is right; and assume as just, the pre- 
cepts to which they have been accustomed 
6* 



66 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

from infancy. Among the few who think, In- 
tellect determines Justice; but the conclusions 
are still influenced by the general mental frame. 

How may conscience be divided? 

Into Absolute and Individual. The first is 
Conscience as it ought to be for all men; the 
second, as its name implies, is the Conscience 
of individuals. 

In ivhat does the Absolute Conscience of man 
consist! 

In the sentiment of conscientiousness com- 
bined with the whole of the faculties peculiar 
to man, those common to the human kind and 
animals being held in subjection. 

In what does Individual Conscience consist! 

It results from the sentiment of conscien- 
tiousness combined with the other faculties of 
individuals. He, therefore, who possesses 
the superior sentiments in great activity, will 
esteem those notions and actions as unjust, 
which another, whose inferior feelings are 
strong, and superior weak, would look upon 
as just. Intellect, it thus appears, is corrupted 
or swayed by the affective powers, and ad- 
mits as just whatever these recognize as agree- 
able. 



MORAL LAWS. 67 

Can we trust to the Individual Consciences of 
.mankind. 

No; it is impossible. Many feel very 
slightly the desire and necessity of being just, 
and seldom or never think of examining their 
actions with relation to moral rectitude. Be- 
sides, people are frequently misled in their 
moral judgments by the influence of other 
feelings; and many things which the standard 
of Absolute Conscience pronounces unjust, 
pass for just when estimated by individual 
manners of judging. 

Ought not the moral laws therefore to be 
studied, determined, and proposed as obligato- 
ry'? 

Certainly; Conscience should be Positive. 

Is there any difference between Positive and 
Absolute Conscience ? 

There ought to be none. In the world, 
however, Positive Conscience, or the Law, 
has most commonly been a product of the In- 
dividual Consciences of legislators. 

Has the Natural Moral Law, or Absolute 
Conscience, any distinguishing characters? 

It has all those of the natural laws generally * 
* See page 4. 



68 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

Have men any right to make moral laws? 

They have none, any more than to fabricate 
laws to regulate their vegetative and intellectu- 
al functions. They cannot change the law of 
propagation, nor of alimentation, nor of any 
other functional operation; they can form no 
conception of an object without dimensions and 
figure; they cannot conceive an effect without 
a cause ; neither can they love pain, nor ap- 
prove internally of that they perceive to be 
bad or immoral. 

Who made the moral laivs of man? 

The same Great Cause that traced the laws 
of man's physical and intellectual parts also 
instituted laws for the regulation of his moral 
nature — God, the Author of the universe. 

How does the Creator make known or reveal 
his laws? 

To inform man of his enactments, God has 
endowed him with understanding, to observe 
and to learn those that implicate his physical 
and intellectual natures; and has implanted in 
his interior, sentiments which make him feel 
the moral laws. 

Is there not another source whence knowledge 
of Moral Laws is derived? 



MORAL LAWS. 69 

Yes, Revelation; that is, knowledge com- 
municated by God to man in a supernatural 
manner. 

What are the advantages of Revelation? 

It is chiefly advantageous as it regulates 
man's uncertain notions of his Creator, and of 
! his duties universally. 

Can man, in the study of his vegetative and in- 
tellectual natures , acquire a greater quantity of 
' knowledge than God has revealed to him ? 

There can be no doubt of it. 

Can the revelation of Moral Laws change or 
annihilate the laws of the vegetative and intellectu- 
al functions? 

To say it can, would be absurd, as putting* 
God in contradiction with himself; for the God 
who reveals the moral duties and the God who 
creates the physical and intellectual functions 
are one and the same. 

Are the advocates of the natural laws Athe- 
ists? 

On the contrary, they entertain the most 
noble, the most pure, ideas of God; they never 
suppose him in contradiction with himself; they 
regard him as the Impartial Parent of the uni- 



70 NATUHAL LAWS OF MAN. 

verse, who treats all his children with equa 
kindness, who applies his laws without varia- 
tion, and without any distinction of persons. 

Jive the advocates of the natural laws change- 
able and arbitrary in their judgments? 

No; they recognize but one law for all men, 
— for the teacher and the taught, the governor 
and the governed. They have one determi- 
nate and invariable standard for their rule of 
conduct. 

Are the disciples of the natural laws hostile to 
the Christian code of morality ? 

No; there they find traces of wisdom truly 
divine; the better they know its precepts, the 
more do they admire. Indeed they cannot do 
otherwise than approve, for they see that true 
Christian morality is the morality of nature, 
announced in a positive manner; they, there- 
fore hope it will speedily be repurified from the 
pagan, profitless, and superstitious observances 
with which its excellence has been contamina- 
ted, and its lustre obscured. 

What is the summary of the natural law of 
morality? 

The faculties proper to man constitute his 



MORAL LAWS. 71 

moral nature; whatever, therefore, is in con- 
formity to the whole of these is morally good, 
whatever is in opposition to them is morally 
bad. 

What are the principal faculties lohich are pe- 
culiar to man? 

Reverence, Marvellousness, Ideality, Caus- 
ality, and in a certain degree Benevolence, 
Justice and Hope. 

Man's powers being innate do they act irre- 



? 

God in giving powers does not inflict the 
necessity of their acting. 

How far are the actions of Man to be called 
necessary , and how far are they free? 

They are necessary as far as there is no ef- 
fect without cause and as they depend on mo- 
tives. They are free as far as they are under 
■the control of other powers, and whenever a 
^choice among the motives takes place. 
) Is the liberty of man unlimited? 

No, it is subject to conditions. 
Wliich are the necessary conditions of free- 
dom? 

1. Intellect to make a choice among motives. 



72 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

2. A plurality of motives. 

3. The influence of intellect on voluntary 
motion. 

How does liberty acquire the character of Mo- 
rality'? 

By the victory of the powers proper to man 
over his brute nature. 

Is it a difficult or an easy task to practise nat- 
ural morality? 

It is one of extreme difficulty. Man is uni- 
versally inclined to break the natural laws. 
'There is no perfectly just man.' 

Is there a natural cause of moral evil? 

Many religious systems recognize a primi- 
tive seduction effected by an evil spirit, often 
represented under the form of a serpent; but 
the cause which continues to prompt man to 
infringe the moral law is in himself. 

Are there then any bad faculties in man? 

No faculty of human nature can be bad in 
itself, — the Author of the whole is all perfec- 
tion. The faculties are neither good nor bad ; 
it is their employment only to which these ti- 
tles can be applied. 

Is it reasonable to decry human nature? 



MORAL LAWS. 73 

It is absurd to decry human nature, and at 
(he same time to exalt religion, which is a 
part of the human constitution, and to teach 
that man is made in the likeness of God. 

Has the Creator willed the moral evil of 
man ? 

Such an opinion is incompatible with the 
notion of a supremely benevolent and all-wise 
God. 

Is man then destined for happiness ? 

To suppose an infinitely good Creator de- 
lighting in the misery of his creatures, is re- 
pugnant to good sense, and to propriety of feel- 
ing. Man, says Moses, was happy until the 
moment of his disobedience. 

What are the synonymes of Happiness and 
Misery ? 

They are the words of Pleasure and Pain. 

Is pleasure good or evil ? 

It is frequently neither the one nor the other, 
and it may occasionally be both; though, in it- 
self, Pleasure can never be evil, seeing that it 
accompanies the activity of every fundamen- 
tal power, and that man possesses certain fac- 
ulties solely destined for his amusement; mu- 
7 



74 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

sic, for instance, painting, sculpture, and the 
feeling that inspires mirth and laughter. 

Can Pleasure be the end or aim of maris ex- 
istence '{ 

No ; because some acts evidently bad are 
accompanied with pleasure. — The wicked man 
is pleased in his iniquity. We are therefore 
commanded by Morality to renounce pleasure 
as often as the faculties we possess in common 
with animals are in opposition to those pecu- 
liar to our humanity, or whenever these are 
not in harmony with each other. 

What is the grand cause of the moral misery 
of man ? 

It consists in the great activity of the infe- 
rior or animal faculties. These, when com- 
batted by the moral nature, suffer pain from 
the restraint. Moreover, the desires they 
originate are insatiable ; the more they are 
indulged, the more they crave indulgence. 

Is it probable that the struggle which accom- 
panies good conduct is a natural arrangement ? 

Yes ; for without the necessity of combat- 
ing the inferior propensities and sentiments, 
there could be no such thing as Virtue. This 



MORAL LAWS. 75 

implies a victory, which is not to be won with- 
out an adversary, and courage to make resis- 
tance. 

Since the Creator ordained that man should 
struggle, has he also decreed his fall ? 

Reason and Morality proclaim the contrary. 

Wliat must be done to render mankind hap- 

They must be made morally good, to the 
end that they may love moral actions; in other 
words, the activity of the faculties peculiar to 
man must be increased, and the energy of 
those held in common with animals diminished. 

By what title are good actions distinguished, 
and what is he called who j^raciises them ? 

Good actions are entitled Virtues ; and he 
who practises the virtues is styled Virtuous. 

Whence were these words derived, and what 
was their original meaning ? 

They came from the Latin ; and signified 
primarily, force or strength. This, indeed, 
may be physical, or it may be moral ; but 
among the Romans, as among other warlike 
nations, bodily strength combined with cour- 
age was considered a most valuable quality. 



7b NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

And since moral actions require an internal 
struggle, to render human nature, properly so 
called, triumphant, the title, Virtue, was also 
applied here. 

Is there any difference between the natural laws 
and the natural virtues ? 

AVhen the words, Law and Virtue, are used 
synonymously, the laws and virtues of nature 
are identical. But if Law be employed to 
signify the regularity with which forces act, 
and phenomena appear, and Virtue to denote 
the just employment of the faculties, a distinc- 
tion between the two becomes necessary. 

How may virtuous actions be divided ? 

According as the Divine laws, or the laws 
imposed by Men, are concerned. 

How may the Civil laws — laws imposed by men } 
be subdivided ? 

1st, According to the nature of the legisla- 
tive power, as Despotic, Arbitrary, or Con- 
ventional laws. 

2d, According to the situations or circum- 
stances for which they are contrived, as the 
Civil code of laws, the Penal code, Commer- 
cial code, &,c. 



MORAL LAWS. 77 

How may Divine laws — laws instituted by 
God , be subdivided ? 

Into Natural and Revealed. These two or- 
ders, however, must of necessity harmonize. 
To suppose that they differ, would be to sup- 
pose God in contradiction with himself. 

What then is the touchstone by which the excel- 
lence of a law j styled Revealed, or any interpre- 
tation of it, may be tried ? 

Laws styled Revealed, and interpretations 
of them, are perfect in proportion as they 
harmonize with the laws of the Creator, or 
possess the characteristics of a Natural law. 
. Wliat are the objects in relation to which Vir- 
tues and Vices are distinguished ? 

1st, The Creator. 

2d, The beings of creation. 

3d, The agent, or being who acts. 

4th, His family. 

5th, His nation. 

6th, Mankind at large. 

How are laws denominated when considered in 
regard to their Divine origin ? 

They are called Religious. 

And hoiv are laws entitled when the necessity 
7* 



78 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

of man's submitting to, and practising them, is 
the view taken ? 

They are then named Moral. 

May the Religious and Moral laws be separ- 
ately considered ? 

Religious and Moral laws are intimately 
connected, yet not so intimately as to preclude 
the possibility or the propriety of considering 
each class under a separate head. 



CHAPTER I. 

OF MORALITY. 

In what does a Moral doctrine consist ? 

It is a doctrine of rights and of duties, and 
of those things which are, and of those things 
which are not, to be done. 

What is to be understood by moral philoso- 
phy ? 

The term moral is sometimes used in op- 
position to physical, also styled natural ; and 
the moral philosophy means the doctrine of the 



MORAL LAWS. 79 

Mind; but the same term also signifies the 
higher powers of Man in opposition to his 
brute nature, and in that sense, moral philoso- 
phy is the same as Ethics, the doctrine of 
rights and of duties, or of the moral precepts 
which admit of proof by reasoning, and which 
bear the character of conviction. 

As to rights — has man any right over God? 

He has none. 

What duties, has man towards his Maker? 

To obey His will in all things. 

What rights has man over the beings of crea- 
tion generally? 

Man's superior endowment in faculties ele- 
vates him far above all else that lives, and he 
has a natural title to profit by his situation. 
Such a law is universal; it extends throughout 
the whole chain of created things. 

Can we then with propriety say that all was 
made solely for man? 

It is ill-directed pride alone, that has pro- 
moted the conception of the utterance of such 
I an assertion. Every creature advantages it- 
self at the expense of others; and if man turn 
the whole to his profit, he only follows the 



80 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

common course of nature. This, however, is 
far from showing that all was made solely for 
him. Geology indeed proves, that many be- 
ings inhabited the earth before the human 
kind was called into existence. 

Has man rights only over those creatures which, 
with himself, enjoy existence? 

No ; he has duties also towards them. Nei- 
ther the physical nor the purely animal nature 
knows aught of duty; but to these, man unites 
a third, which causes him to view his actions 
in relation to morality. An essential faculty 
of the moral man is Benevolence, and this 
forbids him to torment sentient beings for his 
pleasure. All cruelty to animals is, therefore, 
interdicted by Natural Morality. 

Is there a natural law, that allows man to hill 
animals for the sake of their flesh as food? 

Many tribes of the lower animals only live 
by shedding blood. Now the brute portion of 
his nature leads man to destroy, just as it does 
the inferior creatures. Man's anatomical! 
structure proves also, that he is fitted to live 
upon flesh; and further, he thrives on such 
food. Still, his benevolence ought to restrain 



MORAL LAWS. 81 

him from the commission of every act of 
cruelty, either against the lower animals or 
his fellow men. 

What Virtues may be entitled Individual? 

Every action whose end is development and 
preservation of the body, the understanding, 
and the moral character of the Individual. 

Wherein consists the difference between Indi- 
vidual Virtues and those Virtues which regard 
Families, Nations , andtheivhole Human kind? 

It lies in the employment that is made of 
the corporeal, affective, and intellectual pow- 
ers, to further the happiness of ourselves, of 
our families, or of mankind in general. 

Which of these Virtues is the most excellent and 
ennobling? 

That which interests the whole human kind 
is eminently superior to all the rest. True it 
is, indeed, that this is generally lost sight of al- 
together. In the appreciation of the Virtues, 
the scale of their worth is commonly reversed. 
Most men think first of themselves, then of 
their families, then of their country, and sel- 
dom expend a thought upon humanity at large. 
There are even few who recognize the happi- 



82 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

ness of the species as the aim of man's exis- 
tence, and the subordination of all else to this. 
Yet nature shows most evidently that she does 
all for the species; she universally sacrifices 
individuals to its preservation. Moreover, 
desire of self-preservation inheres in all ani- 
mals, love of family and of country in a smaller 
number, but love of the entire species is a dis- 
tinguishing character of man inhisbest estate. 

Is it to be expected that man will speedily prac- 
tise the virtue of universal love? 

No ; hitherto the happiness of countries has 
been sacrificed to that of families and of indi- 
viduals; but general philanthropy is commonly 
decried and scouted as an aberration of the 
understanding; and this, too, in despite of the 
express command of Christianity. 

The basis of natural morality being determin- 
ed* and the sources of good and evil being as- 
certained to be internal^ what method may be 
advantageously pursued in examining Virtuous 
and Vicious actions? 

These may be considered according to pri- 
mary faculties, as it is their employment that 
is good or bad. 

* See page 70. t See page 72. 



MORAL LAWS. 83 

What Virtues belong to the sexual propensity? 

Chastity, and the gratification of the appe- 
tite guided by the laws of hereditary descent. 

Are Continence and Chastity useful to indi- 
viduals ? 

Moderation in sexual indulgence promotes 
bodily strength, and favors health. Hence 
the Athletoe of antiquity were enjoined Conti- 
nence during their preparations for exhibiting 
feats of strength and agility. 

Is the Continence enforced in monastic institu- 
tions to be regarded as an absolute virtue? 

To entitle it to such consideration, it must 

i 

be proved advantageous to individuals, to com- 
munities, and to the species at large. 

What evil effects attend on Celibacy? 

The unwedded are apt to become selfish, 
and to neglect the social and domestic virtues. 
Celibacy, therefore, may sometimes be a vice. 

Why dAd Jesus Christ, our model of Justice 
upon earth, advise his disciples against marriage? 

Probably that they might have all leisure and 
Sliberty to teach and spread abroad the know- 
ledge of the new doctrine. 

Is there any merit in abnegating marriage 
through love of the public good? 



84 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

Celibacy on such grounds is an act of the 
greatest virtue. 

Can Celibacy under any circumstances be an 
error ? 

Yes, when denial disturbs the general func- 
tions of the body; when it destroys appetite, 
causes sleeplessness, and induces unhealthy 
action of any sort; or when it occasions hy- 
pocrisy and mendacity, for instance, in those 
who make a religious virtue of it, and act in 
opposition to their professions. 

What are the Vices of the sexual propensity? 

Libertinage, seduction, adultery, and incest. 

What are the consequences of Libertinage? 

Bodily infirmity, mental weakness, the con- 
traction of bad habits and of disease, the ruin 
of fortune, and a thousand ills beside. 

Why should Chastity be a greater virtue, and 
Incontinence a greater vice, among females than 
males? 

Because the latter superinduces the same 
diseases in both sexes, and the bodies of wo- 
men being less robust than those of men, they 
suffer more from their effects. Women too 
are exposed to all the inconveniences that pre- 



MORAL LAWS. 85 

licede, accompany, and follow child-bearing; 
f and becoming mothers illegally, if, as is more 
[than probable, they be abandoned by their 
seducers, they find themselves shunned by 
f society, and burthened with a family without 
adequate means of support. Victims of self- 
-reproach, sunk in wretchedness, and disgusted 
with life, they can then only look forward to 
the grave as the goal at which their miseries 
(| may terminate. 

Is Polygamy agreeable or contrary to the law 
of natural morality! 

j Polygamy has only obtained among men 
through excessive activity of the sexual pro- 
pensity in individuals, and the right of the 
^strongest. There are certainly not more fe- 
males than males born, and the law which 
says, 'Love thy neighbor as thyself,' forbids 
appropriation, if it can be effected only by 
robbing others of the share of enjoyment des- 
tined for them by nature. Polygamy is there- 
1 fore in opposition to the natural law of morality. 
What should be reqtwed in the parties who 
would contract marriage! 

They ought to possess all the conditions re- 
8 



86 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

quired by the laws of hereditary descent.* 

IVJiat individuals should abstain from mar- 
rying? 

All who have the seeds of a serious heredi- 
tary malady in their constitution; all who are 
weak in body or in mind; and all who have the 
distinguishing attributes of humanity in small 
proportions. Such abstinence would be of far 
more importance to mankind than the celibacy 
practised by the teachers of religion and mo- 
rality in some countries. 

Is it not improper to insist so strongly on the 
laws of hereditary descent, seeing that they limit a 
natural desire, implanted by the Creator? 

By no means. Not only the laws of hered- 
itary descent, but also the sexual appetite, are 
of divine origin; and it is much rather a crime 
to be ignorant of the laws of hereditary de- 
scent, or, knowing them, to neglect their 
practice, than recklessly to indulge the sexual 
propensity. 

Is Incest a crime against natural morality? 

It appears to be so; for those families, of 
which the near relations intermarry, degen- 
erate. 

* See page 26. 



MORAL LAWS. 87 

Is Adulter also an infringement of the natural 
laws ? 

Yes; because it causes disorder, destroys 
conjugal confidence, and ruins domestic order 
and tranquillity. 

Is marriage or union for life, an institutian of 
nature ? 

Yes; even animals, especially many birds, 
are united for the term of their lives, and man 
is so likewise in obedience to a law, which in- 
heres in the faculty of Attachment, and this is 
common to himself and the lower animals. 

Is Divorce permitted by natural morality? 

Yes. The couples which have no family, 
or which can provide for the children they 
may have, in as far as justice requires, do 
well to separate rather than to continue to live 
in perpetual warfare. The consequences 
which follow ill assorted unions are much 
more serious to the parties, to their children, 
and to society at large, than such as attend on 
divorce. Were the sexes what they ought to 
be, there would indeed be no occasion to per- 
mit divorce. The conjugal union would then, 
without any restraint, terminate with life. In 



88 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN". 

the mean time, however, divorce should be 
obtainable, seeing that the social institutions 
ought to be the sources of happiness and not of 
misery. And whatever lessens happiness and 
causes misery, is evil, and contrary to nature. 

What are the virtues of Love of Offspring"? 

The care which parents take in aiding the 
bodily and mental development of their chil- 
dren, in cultivating their talents, and superin- 
ducing habits useful to themselves and to their 
fellow-men; in a word, the efforts given to 
bring them up in the knowledge and practice 
of truth and justice. 

Is such parental virtue common? 

It is unfortunately very rare. Children are 
generally produced without a thought given to 
the laws of hereditary descent, and reared 
merely to please, or serve as pastimes to their 
parents; who more commonly attend to what 
may flatter their own capricious tastes, than to 
what may be substantially useful to their chil- 
dren and the commonwealth. Children are 
frequently spoilt through indulgent weakness, 
(when their waywardness and unruliness are 
insufferable,) or they are forced to a mean and 



MORAL LAWS. 89 

slavish submissiveness of deportment, equally 
unpleasing and pernicious. To give a good 
direction to Philoprogenitiveness requires a 
complete knowledge of human nature gene- 
rally, and of the qualities necessary to guide 
the individuals — the particular subjects of at- 
tention. 

What are the fundamental duties of parents to 
their children! 

To procure them a good organic constitu- 
tion, to exercise those faculties with which 
they are endowed, and to choose them a suita- 
ble profession; to instruct them in the laws of 
their Creator; to show them the necessity of 
submitting to these, and to set the example 
of obedience. 

Is it the duty of parents to leave riches to their 
children! 

Natural morality forbids the accumulation 
of riches: and surely parents cannot be obliged 
to do aught which may pave the way to the 
immorality and degeneracy of their children. 

Have parents a natural right to obedience from 
their children! 

So long as children remain dependent on 
8* 



90 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

their parents, they are bound to obey them, 
but this obligation ceases with the state of de- 
pendence. 

What are the duties of children towards their 
parents? 

Children, so long as they are dependent, 
must respect their parents as superiors and 
benefactors, and repay the attachment and ten- 
der cares they have received, with interest, dur- 
ing the term of their lives. The child when 
born is indebted to parental love for the very 
continuance of its life, and old age has frequent 
occasion for the aids of filial piety and affection. 

What are the duties of a husband? 

He ought to have a trade or profession, to 
procure food and clothing for himself and his 
family, which he has to watch over and pro- 
tect, and also to have a portion of his time at 
the command of the public service. 

What are the duties of a wife ? 

To take care of the interior of the house, 
and to arrange all matters connected with the 
domestic economy; to instruct the boys in the 
rudiments of learning, and to educate the girls 
entirely. 



MORAL LAWS. 91 

What are the principal virtues of •Attach- 
ment? 

Society, Friendship, and Patrial love. 

Is Society , or the social state, an institution of 
nature ? 

Man is no where found solitary; he is at 
the least one of a family; families unite and 
form tribes, and these compose nations. 

Can society, of itself, be said to produce virtues 
or vices? 

Society is the consequence of an innate 
primary faculty, and social virtues and social 
vices, as they are called, result from its com- 
bination with other fundamental powers. The 
institutions destined to direct mankind in their 
actions are and will continue to be the princi- 
pal causes of their virtues and of their vices, 
so long as internal motives, sufficient to in- 
duce the practice of morality, independently 
of all enactments, shall not be experienced. 

Is Patrial love commanded by natural mo- 
rality? 

Natural morality recognizes no one species 
of exclusive love as a supreme law; love of 
native land is admitted, but still as subordinate 



92 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

to universal love. Patriality is an attribute 
of the animal nature, General Love of proper 
humanity alone. 

Wherein lies the difference between Conjugal 
love. Family love, Fraternal love, and Patriot 
love? 

Each kind depends on the faculty of At- 
tachment combined with other and different 
powers. Attachment with the sexual propen- 
sity begets conjugal love, with love of off- 
spring family love; the love of a fraternity is 
based upon an attachment with success in par- 
ticular views or plans, and the love of native 
country on am attachment extended to the land 
of our birth, to its manners and mode of liv- 
ing, to the men speaking the same language, 
governed by the same laws as ourselves, &,c. 

What is the direction of Attachment which is | 
conformable to natural morality , and, consequent- 
ly, positively virtuous? 

That which is bestowed on those who sub- 
mit to the laws of the Creator. 

And what direction of Attachment is vicious ? 

That which is not given agreeable to natu- 
ral morality. 



MORAL LAWS. 93 

Are thtrt any posilivt codts that txatt attach- 
mtnt in conformity with natural morality ? 

Yes; the Indian system of morals, and the 
code of Jesus command us to know as brothers 
and as sisters those only who do the will of 
God. 

Is resistance of attack, or self-defence, permitted 
by natural morality"? 

Courage is a primary faculty of human na- 
ture, and its proper employment a virtue. 
Such a power, in the order of things, was in- 
dispensable to individual preservation and 
well being. It is a frequent means in procur- 
ing aliment, it enables us to overcome obsta- 
cles, and is even usefukin maintaining peace. 

Is personal courage assisted by muscular 
strength? 

So much so, that several philosophers have 
conceived it a result of this. Courage, how- 
ever, is the appanage of no particular degree 
of muscularity or bodily power. 

Is Courage in itself either Virtue or Vice? 

Ancient philosophers ranked it as one of 
the four cardinal Virtues, but in itself, Courage 
is neither Virtue nor Vice; one or other of 



94 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

these titles, it gains according to its just or 
unjust employment. 

When is Courage a Virtue"? 

When it is displayed in conformity with na- 
tural morality. 

And when is Courage a Vice? 

When it aids the animal nature against that 
which is peculiarly human. 

What are the chief Vices of Courage? 

War of aggression: Quarrelsomeness; Love 
of fighting and of witnessing Combats between 
animals or men, Dispute, Contention, &c. 

What employment of Courage deserves to be 
praised and rewarded? 

Such as favors natural morality is alone 
commendable, is alone worthy of reward. 

What is the right which man possesses through 
his p7*opensity to destroy? 

It is that of killing other animals for the 
sake of their flesh. Violent death is one of 
Nature's enactments, and man has that in his 
constitution which originates the law. 

Has man a title to torment animals in any way 
whatever? 

No; his moral part forbids all cruel amuse- 






MORAL LAWS. 95 

nents, and all indulgence at the expense of 
suffering to any living and sentient being. 
Has man a right to slay his fellow men? 

■J Only when he cannot otherwise defend his 
life, or if this be the sole means of preventing 
malefactors from committing murder. 
* Is capital punishment admissible in society? 

Society may agree to inflict death to get rid 
of evil-doers; but it is unjust and cruel to resort 

*to such an extreme measure until every othei 
means has been tried, and found ineffectual, 
to protect the community against criminals. 

1 Yet it is understood that this, as well as all 
other penalties, is to be applied universally, 
and without distinction of persons. 

Does not maris peculiar part revolt at the idea, 

^and natural morality command the abolition, of 
capital punishment? 

Man's ennobling and peculiar nature does 

1 only good; it never returns evil for evil, or 

'takes revenge; it consequently commands the 
abolition of capital punishment. It is the an- 

! imal nature, combined with the simple sense 
of justice, which has established the law of 
retaliation — the lex tulionis. Man's proper na- 



96 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

ture may, however, lawfully employ the ani- 
mal faculties to enforce and to assist natural 
morality, an>l capital punishment must be in- 
flicted if with its abolition the number of 
crimes should increase. 

Is the practice of Duelling permitted by the 
law of natural morality"? 

Duelling is opposed to every one of its pre- 
cepts. He who sheds blood in a duel is guilty 
of murder: The custom originated in the 
right of the strongest, and its continuance is 
one of the remains of barbarism. 

Is war between nations agreeable to natural 
morality'? 

He who, under any circumstances, attacks 
and puts another to death, commits a murder 
in the eye of God. All wars of conquest are 
utterly at variance with the moral law. De- 
fensive war is alone lawful. Every nation, 
like every individual, has the undoubted right 
of repelling any other that would attempt to 
enslave it. It has even a right to destroy its 
enemies, if there be no other means of pre- 
serving its liberties and independent existence. 

What are the good effects of the faculty of Con- 
siructiveness 1 



MORAL LAWS. 97 

This faculty is the source of the mechanical 
I arts; its employment is virtuous when it adds 
i to the means of subsistence, and favors the 
general welfare ; for instance, when it pro- 
cures a good dwelling-house, convenient arti- 
j cles of furniture, or clothing which does not 
impede the motions of the body, and which pro- 
jects it from the inclemencies of the seasons, 
or the sudden variations of atmospherical tem- 
qperature. 

J In what manner does the faculty of Construc- 
tiveness work evil ? 

|; The mechanical arts are injurious to man- 
kind by introducing luxury. Ordinary enjoy- 
>mentsthen suffice no longer, and the desires 
i are guided by caprice. To meet the many and 
expensive demands thus incurred, large sums 
• of money are required, and to procure these, 
every means is adopted without scruple. Mor- 
tals thus become corrupted, and a highway 
copened to all the miseries which attend degen- 
erating men and declining empires. It was 
•with justice that the ancient moralists founded 
the social virtues upon simplicity of manners, 
restriction of wants, and contentment with little. 
9 



98 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

In what does a just employment, or virtuous 
direction of the faculty of Acquisitiveness, con- 
sist '( 

In procuring the necessaries of life, or as 
the Christian code has styled it, 'our daily 
bread.' 

Is property permitted by natural morality ? 
Yes; for as all who live must subsist, all must 
have a right to that, at least, which is neces- 
sary to support life. 

Is it agreeable or contrary to natural morality 
to amass great wealth ? 

No one can accumulate riches without doing 
injury to his neighbor, and violence to the 
natural moral law, which says, c love thy 
neighbor as thyself. 5 The moral law gives 
'their daily bread' to all who employ the tal- 
ents they possess, but it gives no more. 

Does natural morality permit animals to be 
kept for the purpose merely of pleasure and ex- 
travagance ? 

No. In as much as man is more worthy 
than beasts, it is against natural law to give 
to horses and dogs the daily bread of men, or 
the provender which would feed cattle, whose 



MORAL LAWS. 99 

flesh is both useful and necessary as aliment, 
to the human kind. 

Which are the most useful classes in man- 
kind ? 

They are such as by their industry produce, 
or augment, the value of things — agriculturists 
and artizans. 

And what classes are the most useless ? 

Such as do nothing but consume. 

Does natural morality set limits to the gratifi- 
cation of the love of gain ? 

Certainly it does. The love of gain is the 
most formidable of all enemies to the law of 
neighborly love. Men brought up under the 
influence of the spirit of trade, generally en- 
deavor by every means in their power to evade 
the commands of natural morality. 

Does the natural moral law grant exclusive ad- 
vantages to individuals under the form of privi- 
leges or monopolies ? 

No ; on the contrary, it commands every 
one to employ the talents entrusted to his care, 
for the advancement of the common good, the 
universal weal of man. 

Wliat are the privileges accounted the least 
blameable among good men ? 



100 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

Such as are granted for inventions and useful 
discoveries. 

Is it conformable to the law of natural moral- 
ity to secure the eldest males of families in large 
possessions, to the exclusion of the other chil- 
dren r t 

It is against every one of its precepts. 

Is hereditary wealth favorable or prejudicial to 
the culture of morality ? 

To amass great wealth is immoral; it is im- 
moral to leave great riches to children. Man 
is naturally disposed to be idle, and common- 
ly yields to the inclination, if not compelled 
to exertion. But idleness is a fertile source 
of immorality. It ruins the health, enervates 
the mind, and makes life a curse. Moses says 
well — 'Man was born to earn his bread by 
the sweat of his brow.' 

How do the rich usually apologize for their 
great possessions ? 

They introduce God as the disposer of all 
things ; they boast of being his favorites, and 
say, Providence gave them all they have. — 
Nevertheless they might be answered by a 
reference to the Christian code, where they 



MORAL LAWS. 101 

f will find themselves admonished to give their 
riches to the poor, in order more easily to en- 
ter the kingdom of heaven. There, too, 
they will learn, that the indulgence in super- 
fluities, and hoarding of treasures, while thous- 
ands of their fellow-men are living around 
them in indigence, is utterly at variance with 
the express injunction to treat our neighbor as 
ourselves. The love of money, said the apos- 
tle Paul to Timothy, is the root of all evil. 

This presumptuous error may be further ex- 
posed by recurring to the history of rich fam- 
ilies. These have always degenerated in cor- 
poreal and mental qualities ; their properties, 
if not secured by arbitrary laws, consequently 
pass away into other hands ; and in fine, no living 
evidence of their ever having existed remains 
— their very name is consigned to oblivion. 

Are we required by natural morality to labor 
and support the idler ? 

Whilst it commands aid to the unfortunate 
and to the infirm, who are unable by their own 
exertions to procure the means of existence, 
natural morality enjoins the rejection of the 
sluggard and drone as unworthy. The Apos- 
9* 



102 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

tie Paul in his second letter 10 the Thessalon- 
ians, iii, 10, said : 'when we were with you, 
this we commanded you, that if any would 
not work, neither should he eat. 5 

When we see that arts and sciences espe- 
cially flourish when every one strives for his 
individual advantage, is it not likely, that, as 
this could not continue under the dominion of 
natural morality , all would droop beneath its 
reign ? 

It were indeed no very agreeable reflection, 
for the industrious and the talented to think that 
they were laboring for the indolent and inca- 
pable. Meantime, however, they should also 
remember, that they have no natural title, on 
the strength of a patent or charter of privi- 
lege, to deprive others of the opportunity to 
earn a livelihood, and much less, on account 
of their superior endowments, to make others 
labor for their peculiar advantage. 

But has not he who contrives or procures 
work for others a natural right to gain more than 
they ? 

The civil law says, yes, but the Christian and 



MORAL LAWS. 103 

natural moral codes recognize no such privi- 
lege. As we live in the world at present, 
the laws should apportion to each person who 
labors, his share of the profit, according to his 
talents, industry, and care. This would be 
necessary, so long as selfishness predominates 
to its present extent. Legislators should fa- 
vor the working classes as much as possible, 
and use every means of rendering the reign 
of natural morality practical. 

Is it possible to do away with all sense of indi- 
vidual property? 

To attempt such a thing with men as they are 
now constituted, would be to annihilate even the 
hope of general happiness. It would cause 
crimes and calamities of every description. 
The certainty of this exists in the evidently 
immoral disposition of by far the greatest por- 
tion of mankind, and in the general prevalence 
of cupidity, and in the distribution of talents. 

To accomplish the beneficial abolition of 
private property, every individual ought to feel 
pleasure in acting according to the commands 
of the natural and Christian moral doctrines. 
Until then, property must be respected. The 



104 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

early Christians attempted the measure of abo- 
lition; all things were in common among them; 
but experience proved that mankind were not 
then in a condition to adopt such a system; 
and they are still at an infinite distance from 
the perfection which might render it practica- 
ble. When, when will men be able to obey 
the law of universal love! 

May natural morality, to a certain extent, be 
united with the existence of individual posses- 
sions? 

Yes; by fixing the maximum of property, 
and the conditions under which this may law- 
fully be acquired. The general welfare is al- 
ways to be taken as the foundation in such con- 
siderations. Manufacturers should be obliged 
to lay out part of their gains in bettering the 
condition, and adding to the comforts, of their 
laborers, — above all, they ought to be pre- 
vented from injuring the health and morals of 
those in their employment. 

Does natural morality set bounds to national, 
as well as to individual, love of gain? 

Nations, which enrich themselves to the de- 
triment of others, act contrary to the laws of 



MORAL LAWS. 105 

morality. The natural and Christian doctrines 
place Universal above Partial love. That peo- 
ple, which prevents the participation of its 
neighbors in the advantages it enjoys, though 
it may arrogate the title, is no Christian nation. 
. Are Sumptuary laws just or necessary? 

Did manufacturers, and the inhabitants of 
every country, love their neighbors as them- 
selves, sumptuary laws would be useless. No 
.one, then, would wish to enrich himself in par- 
ticular, the products of every land would be 
freely exchanged, and manufactures carried on 
and perfected wherever it could be done most 
.advantageously. In brief, the universal good 
would be the sole consideration, and the efforts 
of all be directed to the accomplishment of this 
-great end. 

i Prohibitory laws in general, are not, how- 
ever, sufficient to establish natural morality; are 
■they? 

No. They may, in some measure, prevent 
\ihe evils which result from the over activity 
of the inferior inclinations; but to better the 
lot of man, it would be necessary to diminish 
his animality, and to increase the energy of 
his peculiar humanity. 



106 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

What are the Vices of the desire to acquire? 

Usury, Fraud, Gambling, and Theft in gen- 
eral. 

Has the word Theft the same meaning in the 
civil as in the natural code? 

Natural morality declares many actions to 
be Thefts which are permitted by civil laws. 
Every one according to the first, deserves the 
name of Thief, who does not love his neighbor 
as himself; he, for instance, who amasses 
wealth by means of the industry of others. In 
the eye of civil laws, however, he only is a 
Thief who takes, by force or fraud, aught that, 
agreeably to the law, belongs to another. 

Is theft, in the sense of the civil law , forbidden 
by Christianity? 

Yes; the Christian doctrine forbids evil of 
every kind. 

Does it go farther? 

Much: it not only forbids evil, it in addition* 
commands universal love, and in this it har- 
monizes with natural morality. c They who 
came before me,' said Jesus, 'were thieves.* 
He desired us to be satisfied with our daily 
bread. 









MORAL LAWS, 107 



What are the virtues, and ivhat the vices, of 
the Propensity to conceal (Secretiveness)! 

The faculty is Virtuous when employed in 
^he cause of general welfare, and Vicious when 
it gives rise to lying, hypocrisy, cunning, in- 
trigue, and duplicity. 

What are the Virtues of Cautiousness! 

Prudence, doubt, and just timidity. 

And its vices! 

Irresolution, puerile terror, melancholy and 
despair. 

Is Prudence necessary in teaching truth! 

The light that is shed, ought certainly to be 
apportioned to the capacity of bearing it in 
those who are the subjects of instruction. Je- 
sus mentioned that he had yet many things to 
say which his disciples could not bear. 'There 
is nothing covered that shall not be revealed, 
and hid, that shall not be known; 5 Math. x. 26. 
He taught them in parables concerning the 
kingdom of heaven, but added: 'what I tell you 
m darkness that speak ye in light; and what 
ye hear in the ear, that preach ye upon the 
housetops;' Matth. x. 27. 

What are the Virtues and the Vices of Self- 
esteem! 



108 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

True dignity and nobleness of character de- 
pend in part on self-esteem, and the faculty is 
virtuously employed in the production of such 
an effect. But self-sufficiency, pride, haugh- 
tiness, and disdainful or contemptuous bearing, 
are consequences of its over activity and ill di- 
rection. Coarseness of manners, too, under 
certain circumstances, and impertinence, are 
increased by self-esteem. 

What is the signification of the ivord Humili* 

It is synonymous with the inaction of self- 
esteem. Humility, to be a virtue, must result 
from the struggle between self-esteem and the 
moral sentiments, and the victory of the lat- 
ter. Humility is also occasionally used to sig- 
nify activity in the Sentiment of Respectful- 
ness (Reverence). 

Is self-esteem a necessary quality'! 

Yes; it favors general independence. Sub- 
missiveness on the part of one, encourages 
pride and the love of dominion in another. 
Self-esteem should adjust the balance be- 
tween the ideas of our own, and of others' 
importance. Its virtuous functions emanate 



MORAL LAWS. 109 

from its combinations with the faculties prop- 
er to man. 

What Virtues and what Vices belong to the 
faculty of Love of Approbation ? 

This sentiment contributes essentially to the 
union of mankind ; politeness of deportment 
and delicacy in language, deference in society, 
obligingness of manner, and good breeding 
generally, are among its agreeable manifesta- 
tions. But petit-maitreism, vanity, ostenta- 
tion, ambition, love of titles, and of all kinds 
of mundane distinctions, are consequences of 
its ill directed activity. 

Is it easier or difficult to guide Self-esteem and 
Love of Approbation in the path indicated by nat- 
ural morality ? 

It is extremely difficult. 'To fly the age we 
live in, 5 says Confucius,* 'to suffer without re- 
pining, to pass unknown and unnoticed among 
men, is a task to be accomplished only by a 
saint.' The great energy of these two senti- 
ments, strengthened as they are by the love of 
gain, and the inferior inclinations generally, 
occasion innumerable evils in the world, and 

♦Invariable Millieu. Chap. xi. 

10 



110 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

excite doubts of the possibility of natural mor- 
ality ever being established as the rule of con- 
duct. The Christian law declares itself, in 
terras which cannot be more positive or more 
severe, against abuses of Self-esteem and Love 
of Approbation; nevertheless, they who style 
themselves believers, and the faithful, par ex- 
cellence, even the preachers of the doctrine 
of Jesus, have continued, and still continue, 
as well as pagans, to be delighted with the 
gratifications these faculties afford, and to at^ 
tribute to the Supreme Being tastes and 
weaknesses similar to their own. 

What are the Virtues of Benevolence ? 

Meekness, the Spirit of peace, Clemency, 
Toleration, Liberality, Forgivingness of Tem- 
per, Hospitality, Equity, and Neighborly 
Love. 

Is christian charity a single faculty ? 

No ; it embraces the whole of the moral 
law, and the regulation of every action that 
concerns our fellow-men. 

Is Alms-giving a virture ? 

It is a Virtue or it is a Vice according as the 
general happiness is thereby affected. If it en- 



MORAL LAWS. Ill 

courage idleness, society suffers, and it is evi- 
dently blameable. When the truly deserving 
are its objects, and it is directed to purposes 
generally useful, it is conformable to natural 
morality, and is praise-worthy. Indiscrimi- 
nate charity is never to be recommended. 

Can Benevolence be any way injurious to man- 
hind ? 

Immensely. If not directed by reason com- 
bined with the sentiment of Justice, it may 
encourage slothfulness and poverty, and all 
the vices that attend on these. It may also 
dispose to prodigality and squandering. 

Is Respectfulness a natural Virtue ? 

Yes ; nature has implanted a primary sen- 
timent, its cause, in the constitution of man. 

What objects especially deserve the respect 
of man ? 

The Supreme Cause, Parents, those who 
teach the laws of the Creator, those who 
watch over their accomplishment, and, in 
general, all that is benevolent, just, and true. 

May respect ever be ill-directed ? 

It is but too frequently bestowed altogether 
unworthily upon superstitious notions and ob- 



112 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

servances, and upon antiquated forms, usages, 
and precedents. 

This sentiment then requires guidance hi its ap- 
plication ? 

Certainly ; and reason ought especially to 
rectify the errors it has committed in regard to 
religion. All the sentiments, without excep- 
tion, are blind, and require the aid of intelli- 
gence in their operation ; without it they can 
never act in harmony with the whole of the 
nature of man. 

But does not belief suffice to direct the religious 
sentiments ? 

No ; for religious belief has induced men 
to admit the most contradictory and many nox- 
ious propositions, under the idea that we 
ought to obey God rather than man ; more- 
over, that which belief leads one to style ven- 
erable and holy, is often, by another, called 
absurd and impious. 

The religious sentiments are given to man as 
sources of happiness, are they not ? 

That they are given to produce good is ev- 
ident ; they are the gift of a good God, but 
hitherto they have been cruelly abused. 



MORAL LAWS. 113 

What course would most directly tend to abol- 
ish the errors , and, for the future, to avoid the 
disorders, which have been committed in the name 
of religion'! 

It would be necessary to begin by permit- 
ting the free use of reason. This, too, would 
be the first step towards effecting the union 
of all religious people. As yet the blind lead 
the blind, but reason ought to enlighten and 
direct the religious, as well as other primitive 
feelings. 

Is belief natural to man! 
Few examine and combine their ideas. The 
greater number admit what they like best, or 
what flatters their feelings and senses most. 
They who hope for much, willingly believe 
promises made to them in the name of heaven. 
They who are inclined to admire and to seek 
after the marvellous, readily give credit to 
aught that seems mysterious. And they who 
j combine the sentiment of respectfulness, with 
the two that produce these effects, are fit 
agents for the execution of whatever they are 
told is necessary to the glory of God. 

Is the believing and benevolent man every thing 
toe expect of humanity? 
10* 



1 14 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

No ; he may be still unfurnished with many 
very essential qualities, such as Justice — the 
fountain-head of morality, Reason — the sole 
guide of action, and Perseverance, the indis- 
pensable assistant in the task of completion. 

Does the sentiment of conscientiousness ofitselj 
suffice to prevent injustice ? 

It does not. This sentiment, it is true, feels 
the desire of acting justly ; but it is blind, and 
must be enlightened by reason, before its ac- 
tions can be recognised as just. It is Reason, 
therefore, that declares every thing done in 
conformity with the dictates of the faculties 
peculiar to man to be just, and every thing 
contrary to their commands to be unjust. 

Is natural morality the same as positive jus- 
tice ? 

The natural and the Christian moral codes 
agree, but they both differ from the civil laws. 
These last only forbid the doing of things to 
others which we would not that they did to us ; 
whilst the natural and Christian morality, far 
more noble, command the doing to others the 
things which we would that they did to us. 

Can the sentiment of conscientiousness do 
harm ? 






MORAL LAWS. 115 



Yes ; by acting uncombined with Reason, 
and those powers generally which are pecu- 
liar to man. 

What Virtues and what Vices, belong to the 
faculty of Firmness or Perseverance ? 

Perseverance in whatever is true, just, and 
reasonable, is Virtuous ; but to persist in what 
is false, unjust, and unreasonable, is Vicious. 

Is man generally, as he is noiv constituted, ca- 
pable of accomplishing the precepts of natural 
morality ? 

No; neither the governors nor the governed 
are generally susceptible of such superlative 
virtue. All that good men can do at present, 
is to demonstrate the existence of the system 
of natural morality, to submit to it, and to 
spread abroad its knowledge ; to examine into 
the obstacles which oppose its admission; and 
to propose the means necessary to prepare 
mankind for the happy epoch, when they will 
be capable of enjoying the blessings it must 
diffuse, by being made the rule of action. 

Is the cultivation of the Understanding to be 
regarded as a duty ? 

Intelligence i«s one of nature's gifts; it is 



116 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

therefore destined to act. Our existence, in- 
deed, depends on it. Without understanding 
we should know neither external objects and 
their qualities, nor the laws which govern the 
physical and moral world ; neither could we 
have any moral liberty. 

Is understanding recognised as necessary to 
free mil ? 

Yes ; according to all the systems of legis- 
lation, idiots, and children before a certain 
age, are not accountable for their actions, be- 
cause they are unable to distinguish between 
good and evil. 

Are the functions of the intellectual faculties 
Virtuous or Vicious ? 

They may be either. Intelligence is a 
means of doing both good and evil. To be 
Virtuous it must second natural morality, 
which is the end of our being. 

WJiat is the vice or sin against Intelli- 
gence ? 

It is ignorance, the cause of a great num- 
ber of evils. Ignorance commits endless er- 
rors; it acts unconscious of causes and of ef- 
fects, and can never repair the disasters it oc- 
casions. 






MORAL LAWS. 117 



Is marts ignorance great ? 

It is exceedingly great. The most com- 
mon and necessary things are totally unknown 
to the bulk of mankind. 

Why is man's ignorance so great ? 

The cause lies in the generally small size of 
the organs of his intellectual faculties. This 
is also the reason why study is so commonly 
irksome and distasteful. Moreover, the civil, 
and especially the religious, governors of na- 
tions, have frequently opposed every sort of 
obstacle to the cultivation of intellect, and the 
diffusion of knowledge. 

What difference is there betiveen Ignorance 
and presumptuous Stupidity, (sottise in 
French) ? 

Ignorance is compatible with the presence 
of excellent natural capacities ; presumptu- 
ous stupidity depends on deficiency of the in- 
tellectual powers, joined to self-esteem and 
pretensions to learning. 

Is Ignorance despicable ? 

Not in itself ; and provided every opportu- 
nity of gaining information and exercising the 
mental powers be laid hold on. 



118 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

Is it the same in regard to presumptuous stu- 
pidity ? 

No. This is despised by every sensible 
person, for it invariably leads men to neglect 
the means of instruction. 

What is the difference between a learned and a 
wise man ? 

Every man who knows much is learned 
but he only is wise who has acquired practical 
knowledge; that is knowledge, applicable in 
the affairs of life. The wise man also en- 
deavors to account for what he observes, and 
to discover principles, in conformity with 
which he may constantly act. 

Is it necessary, for the sake of morality, to cul- 
tivate the Understanding f ( 

Although neither the religious nor the mo- 
ral sentiments spring from understanding, they 
still require its guidance in their application, 
and its aid in enabling them to act harmonious- 
ly with all the other faculties of human nature. 
What should be the aim of every description of 
study ? 

The establishment of Truth and attainment I 
of Perfection. 'Truth,' says Confucius, 'is 



MORAL LAWS. 119 

the law of Heaven/ and 'Perfection is the 
beginning and the end of all things. 5 

What is the basis on which the perfecting of 
mankind mast proceed ? 

Knowledge of human nature, and submission 
to the laws of the Creator; — Conviction that 
nothing can be created, but only modified and 
reproduced according to determinate condi- 
tions. 

; How might the adoption of the natural laws, 
as the rule of conduct, be most speedily effect- 
ed ? 

| By governments exacting their practice, 
and joining the authority of example, by obey- 
ing their commands. 

What are the essential requisites in a legisla- 
tor ? 

He ought to know the nature of the being 

for whom he enacts laws, to believe in natural 

, .morality, and to attest his belief by his actions. 

i Have men any right mutually to impose their 

frills as rules of moral conduct ? 

They most certainly have not. There is 

but one will that ought to be done — the Will 

i of God, and this, in morality, commands im- 



120 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

periously to man, ' Thou shall love thy neigh- 
bor as thyself. ' 

May the doctrine of Morality become a sci- 
ence ? 

There can be no doubt it may by studying 
the laws of the Creator, and by comparing them 
with pure Christianity. 



CHAPTER II. 

OF RELIGION. 

I. 

OF RELIGION IN GENERAL. 

Has every one a right to inquire into religious 
matters ? 

It seems absurd that a particular profession 
should enjoy the privilege to establish religious 
opinions incumben on all the rest of the com- 
munity, whilst it seems right that every rea- 
sonable mind should examine the most import- 
ant, viz, the religious part of his constitution. 



OF RELIGION. 121 

Has the phrenologist in particular a right to 
inquire into religion? 

Undoubtedly. Phrenology embraces the 
whole of the innate dispositions. Now as 
there are innate religious feelings, the phren- 
ologist is enabled to examine their essence and 
operations. 

What are the limits of the phrenologist in the 
examination of religious conceptions? 

He is confined to the result of the innate 
religious feelings of man. 

What is the meaning of the word religion? 

This name comes from the Latin, and signi- 
fies a binding together, connexion, or union. 
We particularly understand by it, a belief in 
supernatural beings, and in relations between 
them and ourselves; and further, the practice 
of rendering them worship, in whatever this is 
made to consist — in whatever manner it is be- 
stowed. 

Have men universally had religion of some de- 
scription? 

All nations whatsoever have conceived the 
existence of supernatural powers, have believed 
themselves in relation with these, and have a- 
doredthem. although in very different manners. 



122 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

How may Religions be divided? 

According to the number of supernatural 
beings revered, and according to the origin 
of religious ideas. 

What religious systems are included in that 
division which regards the number of divinities? 

1st, Polytheism, — the system of belief in 
many gods; such was the Pagan Religion,! 
styled Mythology. 

2d, Bitheism, — the system of belief in two 
principles, the one of good, the other of evil, 
named Osiris and Typhon by the Egyptians; 
Brama and Moisaour by the Indians; Ormuzd ! 
and Ahrimanes by the Persians; Jehovah and j 
Satan by the Jews; God and the Devil by 
some modern nations, &,c. 

3d, Monotheism, — the system of belief in 
one Supreme Being, the primary cause of all 
that is, and all that comes to pass. 

Can we conceive the origin of Polytheism? 

Yes; by keeping in view the nature of the 
faculties possessed by man, and his great igno- 
rance. By his innate dispositions man is in- 
clined to venerate, to fear, to admire, and to 
raise his mind to supernatural conceptions. 



OF RELIGION. 123 

These feelings he at first employed upon natu- 
ral objects, the sun, the moon, the stars, and 
afterwards upon the personified causes of nat- 
ural phenomena, as of thunder, of the wind, 
of the four seasons, of vegetation, &c. In his 
ignorance, therefore, man followed the blind 
dictates of his feelings, and espoused such 
opinions as accorded with them. 

Can we also conceive the system of two princi- 
ples, the one of good, the other of evil ? 

Yes; for good and evil, or pleasure and pain, 

l exist. Nature universally presents opposites 
to the view, and every individual even feels 

1 these in his own interior, among his sentiments. 

[Now man, who by one faculty seeks for the 
cause of every effect, and by another person- 

'ifles every thing even to causes, could not ad- 

^mit one and the same cause for both good 
and evil. 

Is Monotheism, or the system of one Supreme 

\Being, more reasonable than Polytheism and the 
belief in two principles? 

\ Belief in the unity of God is the only notion 

"that agrees with the supreme law of reason. 
This belief, therefore, spreads abroad among 



124 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

the nations, in proportion as they become en- 
lightened. 

Which of the two, Monotheism or Polytheism, 
ivas most probably the first religious belief among 
savage nations'* 

Polytheism. To arrive at Monotheism, it is 
necessary to reason; but the feelings or affec- 
tive faculties exist in greater activity than the 
powers of analysis and causation in civilized, 
and still more among savage nations. It is con- 
sequently probable, that the religious senti- 
ments acted before the intellectual faculties 
had received any cultivation, and in their blind- 
ness gave birth to the absurdities of paganism. 
This is the course in which the people, whose 
histories we .know, have advanced, during the 
different epochs of their civilization, and it has 
probably been that of those nations, of whose 
origin or infant existence no account has 
reached us. 

Is general consent given to the above reply? 

No; Monotheism is commonly believed to 
have degenerated into Polytheism, by reason 
of the symbols under which the Supreme Be- 
ing and his attributes were adored. To God, 
it is said, were attributed the light and vivify- 



OF RELIGION. 125 

ing power of the sun, the abundance of a fer- 
tile country, See. — the presumed qualities of 
the Deity were represented under particular 
forms, or likened to natural objects; and igno- 
rance, overlooking their emblematic sense, as- 
sumed the mere Symbols as Divinities. 

How is the 'preceding reasoning supported? 

Monotheism, it is asserted, reigned in the 
east of Asia, whilst in the western world, — in 
Egypt, Greece, and Italy, the symbols of God 
having been taken for so many divinities, Po- 
lytheism was the religious belief. 

What is overlooked in this explanation of Po- 
lytheism? 

The primary dispositions of man, and their 
spontaneous activity. Our ignorance, too, of 
the early history of eastern nations is forgotten. 
It is also extremely improbable that they alone 
should have commenced by Monotheism, all 
the other societies of Europe, of America, and 
the Isles, having followed a different course. 

How have the Monotheists represented God? 

Philosophers have conceived God as a Su- 
preme, Self-existing, and Self-sufficing Being, 
the Author and Preserver of the Universe. 
11* 



126 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

What is the title of the doctrine which recog- 
nizes the existence of a supreme, maintaining, and 
great First Cause? 

It is called Deism, as its supporters are styl- 
ed Deists or Theists. Some philosophers, 
however, have considered God as a vivifying 
and moving principle, pervading all things. 
This they have called, Soul of the World. Ac- 
cording to them, the souls of men are portions 
of, or emanations from, the great principle 
which are never lost, but quitting one body 
death go immediately to animate another. 

What is the exact meaning of Atheism? 

It signifies the doctrine which denies the 
existence of a God, — Supreme Creator and 
Upholder of the Universe.* 

How may Mheism be accounted for? 

Atheists must necessarily be very rare. 

They can only exist in consequence of some 

deficiency in the conditions, by means of which 

man generally conceives a Supreme Being; 

in the same way as, one is blind from birth 

when the apparatus on which vision depends 

is imperfect. 

*'The fool saith in his heart, There is no God,' Psalm i 
xiv. 1. 



" 



NATURAL RELIGION. 127 

What Religious systems are included in the 
division according to the origin of religious ideas ? 
1st, Natural Religion, and, 
2d, Revealed Religion. 



II. 

OF NATURAL RELIGION. 

Does man, by his reason, recognise the exis- 
tence of God? 

Man involuntarily seeks for the Workman, 
or Cause of all that is. Ry reasoning he ar- 
rives at a First Cause, beyond which he can 
conceive nothing; this cause personified is 
God. 

Can man, by his reason, comprehend the na- 
ture of God? 

No; to know God, it were necessary to be 
his equal at the least; an inferior being can 
never conceive the nature of one infinitely his 
superior. Indeed, man does not know the 
essence of any single natural object, how then 



128 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

can he imagine that of aught which is super- 
natural ? 

Is man naturally inclined to religious ideas'? 

There is nothing more certain. He has in- 
nate faculties, whose manifestations depend on 
certain parts of the brain, and which induce 
him to be religious. 

Can religious ideas he indifferent in their na- 
ture? 

True religion being the will of God, cannot 
be indifferent, and God being all perfection 
and bounty cannot act from mere arbitrariness. 

Is it probable that God, in giving a law to 
man, has given him also means to understand itl 

Certainly, since without intellect neither 
the law nor its necessity can be conceived. 

Does natural religion admit of reasoning? 

Its regulation is subjected to reason. Any 
proposition subversive of universal harmony 
among the faculties is at once to be rejected 
as erroneous. 

Is not the reason of man governed by certain 
principles, agreeably to which it must admit or 
deny such and such attributes or qualities in 
God? 



NATURAL RELIGION. 129 

Human reason ought at least to suppose all 
the moral qualities in God, which it exacts of 
a just and reasonable man. 

Can God, agreeably to human reason, be in 
contradiction with himself, improve by experience, 
do aught at one time, and repent him of having 
done so at a latter period? 

No; according to human reason, God is 
perfection and intelligence itself; his will is 
eternal, and his laws are unchangeable. 

Can God be partial? 

Human reason says he is all equity and all 
justice; it declares every exclusionary idea, 
entertained in connexion with the Parent of 
the Universe, as sacrilegious. 

Can God be cruel? 

Good sense shrinks from such a conception 
coupled with the name of the great Author of 
all. God cannot love evil, nor lend it his 
countenance and aid. 

Can God be jealous, envious, and vindic- 
tive? 

All such expressions are merely expedient, 
and adapted to a hard-hearted race of men. 
Belief in God combined with such ideas, is 



130 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

an abomination in the eyes of a national and 
moral being. 

Why has God been so generally represented 
as a being to be feared? 

Because fear is an excellent means of mak- 
ing man act at will. 

Is it probable thai the divine laws made for 
man are adapted to his nature ? 

It is impossible to think that God, in creat- 
ing man, and instituting laws for his govern- 
ment, did not adjust the one to the other. 

God being unchangeable, must, therefore, re- 
ligion not remain unchanged? 

The design and end of religion must remain 
unchanged, but the means tending to that end 
must vary according to the different degree of 
civilization of nations and individuals who re- 
ceive religious instruction. 

What can be the end of true religion? 

The glory of God and the good of man. 

Can divine laws be less reasonable than civil 
laws? 

This is impossible, because human wisdom, 
coming from God, cannot surpass that of his 
all wise Creator and perfect law-giver. 






NATURAL RELIGION. 131 

Which are the powers of man that are proper 
to judge of true religious notions? 

Religion is a prerogative of man, hence all 
religious notions should be in conformity with 
the human faculties strictly speaking, and free 
from every influence of animal feelings. 

Is every one capable of deciding about religious 
truth? 

No more than every person is able to judge 
of arts and sciences. The great bulk of man- 
kind is only fit to learn; happy, therefore, the 
flock, under the shepherd who attends to their 
welfare. 

Are there some signs indicative of truth in re- 
ligion? 

Since true religion tends to the glory of God 
and the good of man, divine doctrines are har- 
monious, reasonable, and have a powerful in- 
fluence to improve man's life and moral char- 
acter, whilst all contradictions, absurdities and 
doctrines that tend to promote vice, cannot 
come from above. / ; 

Is it reasonable to conceive God, trying men 
and their obedience by commanding insignificant 
and unmeaning observances, useless both to him- 
self and to his creatures? 



132 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

Such a thought is altogether unworthy of the 
true God. The idea of God's spreading toils 
for man is incompatible with his divine justice. 
A reasonable master commands no more than 
the necessary, the profitable and the just to 
his servants. And if God be prescient, as 
reason proclaims, he cannot require to put 
mankind to the proof. It is time to cease from 
representing God as a mere human being; or 
if this be indeed impossible, let us suppose the 
Supreme Author of the universe at least en- 
dowed with such qualities as are exacted from 
tolerably perfect humanity — Benevolence, Jus- 
tice, Reason. The will of God implicates re- 
alities and things indispensable; instead there- 
fore of attributing to the Creator childish fan- 
tasies and modes of acting to which worse 
names might with justice be applied, let us ac- 
complish his natural laws, fulfil the duties that 
profit ourselves and all mankind, and thus, if 
by aught we may render ourselves agreeable 
to the great Author of our being. 

Is the belief which men have in God's attributes, 
of great importance! 

Of the greatest; since men like to imitate 
the example of their maker. 









NATURAL RELIGION. 133 

Is outward worship conceivable in Natural 
Religion ? 

In recognizing supernatural agents, or one 
Supreme being, and their influence on his es- 
tate, man was naturally led to render them 
homage, and to demand their protection. Far- 
ther, in endowing the objects of his worship 
with human qualities, often with human weak- 
nesses, and even with human vices, man has 
treated them humanly; he has assigned them 
abodes, especially in elevated situations, he 
has erected altars to their service, and brought 
them propitiatory offerings of various kinds; 
he has sung them laudatory hymns, played on 
musical instruments, and burnt perfumes for 
their gratification, &c. &c. Man has always 
anthropomorphised the divinity he adored. 

Was it also natural for man to imagine 
agents intermediate between him and his Crea- 
tor? 

Yes; in representing God as endowed with 
human faculties, men have deemed him acces- 
sible to all their wants, as well as alive to all 
their pleasures and appetites. They conse- 
quently supposed that the Supreme Being, 
12 



134 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

like an earthly potentate, held a court, and had 
a ministry or administration, to which he con- 
fided part of his affairs, that he had favorites 
to whom his ear was more open than to them- 
selves, and so on, after the manner of things 
below. 

In Natural Religion what is the ivorship which 
reason approves"? 

Reason says that God, being all perfection 
in himself, can neither gain nor lose in beati- 
tude by means of the terrestrial creation. 
Reason says further, that God must be a spirit, 
not shut up in one place, but that the earth — 
the universe — is his tabernacle. Moreover, 
reason says that God created men for their 
own happiness, and that having established 
the laws necessary to secure this end, they 
are the true bond of union between God and 
man. Knowledge of the natural laws, there- 
fore, and unreserved submission to their dic- 
tates, compose the natural worship which man 
owes and must render to make himself agree- 
able to the Deity. 

Is there any difference between Natural Re- 
ligion and Natural Morality? 






REYEALED RELIGION. 135 

None whatever. All the relation which 
man, during the term of this life, has with God 
or his Creator, consists in respect and obedi- 
ence to His laws. 



III. 

OF REVEALED RELIGION. 

Man is by his nature carried to religious 
ideas; but there is another source ichich incites to 
such conceptions, is there not'? 

Yes, it is Revelation. 

Is this source fertile in results'! 

Yes; by far the greater number of religious 
systems have been received as revelations. 
The divinities of the ancients, and the Deity, 
by whatever title designated, of the moderns, 
are reputed to have manifested their Will, 
whether directly or indirectly, to man. Judg- 
es in Israel, Druids among the Celts, Incas 
among the Peruvians, — in a word, a priest- 
hood have always been the interpreters of the 
celestial decrees. This body commonly re- 



136 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

ceived the instructions of heaven secretly, or 
in symbolic language; and appropriating to it- 
self the right of interpreting them, it has ever 
taught dogmatically, arrogated infalibility to 
its tribunal, and anathematized whoever dared 
to contradict, to question, or to doubt. 

Is reason opposed to the belief in Revelation! 

No ; Reason is obliged to admit a Creator, 
and cannot limit his almighty power. 

Do all the systems of religion received as re- 
vealed, and which admit one only God, invaria- 
bly represent him in the same way! 

No; some of them attribute physical quali- 
ties to the Supreme Being; the Mahometans, 
for instance, conceive him to be round, im- 
mense, and cold; the Indian Gentiles, imagine 
him as an oval; others picture him as an old 
man with a white beard and a venerable as- 
pect, &c. Those systems of Religion which 
accord most with reason, speak of God as an 
incorporeal Being — a Spirit. 

And do all the religions that recognize God as 
a Spirit, conceive him endowed with similar attri- 
butes! 

Far from it; by one he is represented as 









REVEALED RELIGION. 137 

partial, exclusive, jealous, vindictive, cruel, a 
God of armies and battles, delighting in the 
blood of victims and of enemies; by another he 
is pictured as full of goodness, beneficence, 
clemency, and mercy, a God of peace and of 
love, rejoicing in the felicity of all. — Men 
commonly attribute to the Supreme Being 
their own manners of thinking and of feeling 
their animal and human nature; — this is even 
apparent in the interpretations of the several 
grand systems of religion, i. e. in the formation 
of sects. The controversies of theologians on 
God and his nature, on his communication 
with man, and on the mode in which he rules 
the universe, are very voluminous, and there 
are innumerable schools of religion, each of 
which assigns grounds, more or less plausible, 
for its dissent from the others; in general, how- 
ever, they are evidently entangled in a laby- 
rinth of contradiction and inconsequence. 

Are there not some general points of resem- 
blance between all systems of religion? 

There are. 1st, In each the articles of be- 
lief are propounded as the commands of 
heaven. 

12* 



138 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

2d, The articles of faith are essentially the 
same, but variously modified according to the 
genius of each; they relate to a beginning, or 
creation of the world, to one or more regu- 
lating causes of occurring phenomena, to a 
primary state of perfection of man as created 
by a good principle, to his degeneration, or 
fall through disobedience, to a cause of his 
seduction, to his disgrace and punishment, to 
the possibility of his repurification and restora- 
tion to divine favor, and lastly, to his future 
state. 

3d, They who made known the articles of 
a revelation, have uniformly attested their 
mission by the working of miracles; these are 
the testimonials of prophets. 

4th, The language used in all is figurative, 
or symbolical. 

5th, Almost all are intolerant and mutually 
exclusive; a circumstance which arises from 
the innate feelings of self-esteem and firmness 
in man, and from its being evident, that as 
there is only one God, only one religion can 
possibly be true. 

Whence does this sameness arise? 






REVEALED RELIGION. 139 



It may be accounted for by the sameness 
j of the innate powers, and by inferring a primi- 
- tive revelation of the divine will, adapted to 
> the innate faculties of man, which being es- 
i sentially the same, necessarily require and 
determine similar modes of satisfaction. All 

• nations have music according to the same 
I laws, and dances in accordance with their 

music; pride is everywhere greedy of com- 

• mand, and vanity of display. The same inva- 
riable law applies to religious sentiments in 
combination with the other primary powers of 
the mind. 

When ive see that the several faculties which 
dispose men to be religious are innate, does not 
revelation become superfluous! 

By no means. All the natural inclinations 
have gone astray, and have a continual ten- 
dency to err in their application, and revela- 
tion, in giving them a good positive direction, 
may be eminently salutary. 

Jire all the religious systems, which are consider- 
ed as revealed, and believed at the same time, true? 

This is impossible. As there is but one 
God, there can be but one supreme will, and 
one true religion. 




140 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

Has the phrenologist a right, oris it incumbent 
upon him, to decide about the truth of any re- 
ligious belief? % 

Neither the one, nor the other. His know- 
ledge is confined to the results of the innate 
dispositions, but the certainty of revelation 
depends on proofs of another nature beyond 
the reach of phrenology. 

How are the religions, regarded by their disci- 
ples as revealed, commonly supported? 

It is customary to repose on the veracity of 
the prophets who report the revelation, and 
they themselves are required to work miracles 
in order to attest their mission. 

What is a miracle? 

A miracle is a suspension or counteraction 
of the established laws of nature. It, there- 
fore, implies the power of God, — the ability to 
create, and to interrupt or suspend the cur- 
rent of things, fro annihilate, to diminish, and 
to augment matter, to still the waves of the 
sea, to hush the winds, to cure distempers by 
words, and so on. 

Can the title c absurd' ever be well applied in 
connexion ivith miracles? 



REVEALED RELIGION. 141 

No ; for whatever man pretends to effect, in 
contradiction to the laws of creation, is decep- 
tion. Thus it is impossible to put the moon 
into the sleeve of a coat, as Mahomet boasted 
he had done. 

Why have revelations always been made in 
symbolic and mysterious language? 

The majority of mankind are fond of the 
marvellous; and in addressing them through 
its medium, a hearing is surely and readily 
obtained. The most palpable absurdities, the 
grossest superstitions, are admitted by the ig- 
norant, provided they be but proposed as su- 
pernatural, and be deeply tinged with the 
marvellous. Enlightened men, too, who form- 
ed just and reasonable ideas of the Supreme 
Being, of his attributes, and of man's relations 
with him, have generally been obliged to con- 
form in public to the prevalent state-system of 
religion, and they therefore invented a lan- 
guage of symbols, by means of which they 
maintained their private opinions, entrusting 
the initiated only with the key to its interpreta- 
tion. Besides, the oriental tongues abound in 
metaphors, comparisons, and figurative expres- 



142 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

sions, which translated literally into modern 
languages, lose entirely their primary signifi- 
cations. 

What is the conclusion to be drawn from the 
foregoing reply ? 

That we are not to rest satisfied with mere 
literal interpretations of religious language, 
but that we must search for its spirit. The 
apostle said long ago, f the letter kills, but the 
spirit vivifies.' 

Can a truly divine revelation interdict the use 
of reason? 

Reason is the noble gift by which the Cre- 
ator has distinguished man from all other ani 
mated things. Now it would be a most un- 
reasonable act, first to endow a being with any 
faculty, and then to prohibit its use. Such a 
procedure would be, if possible, more absurd 
in reference to the most distinguished and en- 
nobling of all the powers of the mind. More- 
over, God, who is all wisdom and all reason, 
could never create man in his own likeness, 
as it is said he did, and then forbid the em- 
ployment of the very faculties which must form 
a principal feature in the resemblance. 



REVEALED RELIGION. 143 

i Can God contradict himself '? 
i This is impossible, his will being perfection 
of virtue, and his sense of right and consistency 
ibeing the strongest. God therefore cannot 
contradict in revelation what he teaches in 
>his works; nor can he contradict in one part 
of scripture what he teaches at another. 
4 What inference may be drawn from the pre- 
ceding answer! 

Known truth derived from observation and 
experience must restrain and modify the scrip- 
tural language, and every interpretation must 
be given up which contradicts any physical 
t truth, particularly since the scriptural language 
is singularly figurative and no where affects 
the precision of science or the accuracy of 
definition. 

Is belief the best means of proving the truth oj 
a revealed system of religion! 

It is certain that all religions whatsoever are 
propped upon belief. It is equally certain 
rjhat belief depends on feelings rather than on 
intellect, and that men are very ready to be- 
lieve when their tastes are flattered, when 
they are met by promises that are agreeable to 



144 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

their desires. — There are nearly as many Ma- 
hometans as Christians in the world, and all 
good Mussulmen believe, firmly, that their 
prophet put the moon into the sleeve of his 
coat. From this it is evident, that simple be- 
lief cannot demonstrate the truth of any, how- 
ever generally accredited, system of religion. 

Besides belief, is there any other mode of de- 
monstrating the truth of a revelation? 

Yes; there are proofs founded on the nature 
of the revealed doctrine itself, and that are ap- 
proved by reason. Thus, the precepts that 
come from God must necessarily harmonize, 
they must be adapted to human nature, and 
they must produce salutary effects. It is im- 
possible to suppose that God gives mankind 
laws whose tendency is injurious to them. 

Can true religion exclude morality? 

This seems impossible to those who have 
arrived at refined notions of an all perfect Be- 
ing, and who place their most acceptable wor- 
ship in actions producing every one's own 
happiness in harmony with that of his neighbor. 
They find religion unprofitable, nay often hurt- 
ful, if it be confined to mere belief in the divine 



REVEALED RELIGION. 145 

appointment of prophets; in mere miraculous 
actions of the Almighty, or in idle, useless, 
ridiculous or even mischievous observances, 
whilst the exertions of the higher sentiments 
of man are passed over as indifferent. 

Can they be received as true prophets, who 
speak according to the circumstances of the times 
in which they appear? 

No; the spirit of God is eternally the same. 
Reason, therefore, unmasks Mahomet, who 
accommodated the revelations of the angel 
Gabriel to the nature of his designs, and even 
rescinded preceding communications entirely, 
if his views required the measure. 

Is it reasonable to doubt in religious matters? 
and if so, why? 

Yes, it is; because many assent to what 
many deny; and because there have been 
many prophesying cheats, and much prophetic 
deception inflicted on the world. Caution is 
especially necessary when the temporal inter- 
est of the deceivers is joined with the spiritual 
interest of the deceived. 

May false prophets and their errors be more 
readily and certainly detected by the nature of 
13 



146 NATURAL LAWS Off MAN. 

the doctrine they teach, or by the belief they re- 
ceive ? 

The nature and doctrine, and the fruits it 
produces, afford the surest test of its truth. 

Why do the priesthood so commonly oppose the 
use of reason? 

The priesthood have exacted hlind belief, 
because this, whilst it prevents discussion, 
renders their calling more imposing, and more 
easy; it further secures them from accusation, 
and cloaks their errors and selfish views. 

What advantage is there in proposing laws to 
men as divine revelations? 

It disposes them powerfully to obedience. 

What peculiar condition of mankind is the most 
favorable to belief in general? 

The state of ignorance which is always 
credulous. They, therefore, who would lead 
the nations blindfolded, have reason at least 
on their side, in opposing the cultivation of 
the understanding. 

Is it a matter of difficulty to discover and to 
understand truth? 

The question is rarely of either discrimina- 
ting or of understanding ; the mass of mankind 



REVEALED RELIGION. 147 

admit what they like, and what they consider 
as favorable to their interests, whether tempo- 
ral or eternal. When the time comes that 
mankind shall desire to understand and to prac- 
tise what is reasonable and just, truth will tri- 
umph over error. 

Is belief necessary in any wise! 

Yes; but if religious doctrines be imposed 
as obligatory, the articles of belief should be 
reasonable and just, in order that he who is 
capable of reflecting*, ma) r perceive them as 
true, and their practices tending to establish 
the general happiness. 

Is a religious doctrine true because of its pro- 
mising great rewards! 

To promise largely is an efficient means of 
ensuring its adoption, but this does not in any 
way prove its truth. It ought to be reasona- 
ble and advantageous at the same time; that 
is to say, it should satisfy both the affective 
and the intellectual faculties of man. 

Is instruction dangerous to morality! 

Experience proves most amply that it is 
not. The history of nations, of tribes, and of 
classes in the different societies of men, pre- 



148 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

sents the greatest number of crimes and of im- 
moral actions generally, during the reign of 
ignorance, and of superstition its attendant. 
Crimes diminish not only in frequency, but in 
atrocity, in proportion as the mind receives 
cultivation, as arts and sciences are encourag- 
ed, and as good manners and gentle bearing 
are esteemed and rewarded. Men must pos- 
itively be taught whatever it is deemed of im- 
portance that they should know. The only 
question therefore is, whether it be more ad- 
vantageous to instruct them in superstition 
and error, or in reasonable religion and salu- 
tary truths. 

Have religious doctrines done harm to Man- 
kind! 

Much, both physically and morally; some- 
times by their commands, but principally by 
their intolerance. 

How can a religious system work physical evil'? 

By its provisions as to the nourishment of 
the body and the propagation of the species, 
and by countenancing any species of persecu- 
tion, such as the rack, dungeon, stake, &c. &c. 

What is the revealed religion which surpasses 



CHRISTIAN" RELIGION. 149 

all others in every hind of perfection, and that 
stands the scrutiny of reason J 
It is Pure Christianity. 



IV. 

OF CHRISTIANITY. 

Phrenology being true, can it be in opposition 
io pure Christianity ? 

This is impossible; as no truth either physi- 
cal or moral can be in opposition to any other. 
Christianity and Phrenology, when well un- 
derstood, will give mutual assistance to each 
other. 

Is the phrenologist entitled to speak of Chris- 
tianity, and if so. how far? 

The phrenologist has the right to examine 
whether Christianity is adapted to the innate 
dispositions of man, and he is delighted in see- 
ing it in perfect harmony with the human na- 
ture. But he is confined to the examen of 

the Christian doctrine in itself and its superi- 
13* 



150 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

ority without being able to decide about the 
nature of the Revealer; he can speak only 
from actual observations and inductions. 

Does the Christian Religion permit reason- 
ing? 

Jesus himself said, ' Those who have ears 
let them hear,' he declared that light is not 
made to be hidden, but to enlighten; and he 
reproached his own disciples for being without 
understanding. (Matt, xv.) Paul also says, 
'I speak as to wise men, judge ye what I 
say.' (1 Cor. x. 15.) And again, 'Prove all 
things, hold fast that which is good.' (1 Thess. 
v. 21.) 'Beloved,' says John, 'Believe not 
every spirit, but try the spirits whether they 
are of God.' (1 John iv. 1.) 

Does not Christianity recur to reasoning in 
order to demonstrate the existence of God? 

It does. For 'every house,' says Paul to 
the Hebrews, chap. iii. ver. 4, 'has been 
builded by some man, but he that built all 
things is God.' 

In what manner j according to Christianity, does 
God make himself manifest? 

The invisible perfections of God, his eter- 



CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 151 

nal power and his divinity, appear in the works 
of creation. (Rom. i. 20.) 

What are the chief attributes of God, as de- 
fined by Christianity? 

God is a spirit. (John iv. 24.) He is love 
(1 John iv. 16.) He is just and impartial, and 
regards not appearances nor persons. (Rom. 
ii. 11.) He rewards each according to his 
works. (Rom. ii.); desires only good, and 
wills only the happiness of his creatures. 
(New Testament, passim.) 

How may the doctrines of Christianity be di- 
vided? 

Into two principal parts, the one marvellous, 
the other moral. 

In what does the marvellous part of Christiani- 
ty consist? 

It includes whatever is incomprehensible, 
whatever is beyond the limits of observa- 
tion; — such is the nature of God, the creation 
of the world by his will, his influence upon 
his creatures, his communication with men, 
the birth and miraculous actions of Jesus, the 
immortality of the soul, and the rewards and 
punishments in the life to come. 

This part of Christianity requires belief ? 



152 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

It depends entirely upon belief; for the 
points of which it is composed cannot be sub- 
mitted to present observation. 

How does belief in these incomprehensible mat- 
ters become efficacious and profitable? 

When it induces the believer to practise the 
Christian virtues. It is necessary, says Paul, 
to have ' faith which worketh by love.' (Gal. 
v. 6.) e Faith, 5 says James, £ if it have not 
works, is dead in itself. 5 (James ii. 16, 26.) 
Christianity, calls us to be perfect as our 
Father in heaven is perfect. 

Have all Christian societies agreed upon the 
marvellous part of their doctrine ? 

No; this part has produced continual dis- 
sensions among Christians, and so long as any 
individual shall dare to think and to interpret 
for himself, these must continue. It is this 
part of Christianity also which has often been 
the cause, and always served as the pretext, 
for intolerance, and persecution on account 
of opinions. 

What is to be concluded from this? 

That every man should be allowed to follow 
the dictates of his own conscience, and to be- 



CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 153 

Iieve whatever he conceives is true, provided 
the public tranquillity be not disturbed, and 
the moral part of Christianity do not suffer. 

Is this conclusion reasonable ? 

It is in complete harmony with reason, and 
in conformity with the moral injunctions of 
Christianity, which command the preaching of 
the truth, but strictly prohibit all persecution. 
'Go ye, 5 said Jesus to his disciples, 'into all 
the world, and preach the gospel to every crea- 
ture. And whoever shall not receive you, nor 
hear your words, when ye depart out of that 
house or city, shake off the dust of your feet. 5 
The induction is the more reasonable, too, in 
as much as the Christian doctrine assures us 
that every one, at the final judgment, will have 
to render an account of his talents and of his 
deeds. 

In what does Christian morality consist ? 

The whole of it is reducible to two grand 
commandments, viz. Love God ivithyour whole 
soul,' and 'Love your neighbor as yourself.' — 
(Matt. xxii. 37. 39.) 

What is understood by the 'Ijove of God V 

'This is Love of God, that we keep his 
commandments ' (1 John v. 3.) 



154 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

Can we, humanly speaking, c Love God^ such 
as he is represented in the gospel ? 

Every rational and noble mind must love a 
God of peace, of goodness, of clemency, and 
of justice ; a God who has compassion on 
our weaknesses, and who makes the sun to 
shine, and the rain to descend, even on those 
who obey not his will; a God who gives the 
breaker of his law time for repentance ; who 
desires universal happiness; who gives the 
same laws to the whole human kind indiffer- 
ently ; and who will mercifully judge each by 
his works, without respect of persons. 

Is the observance of certain symbolic forms suf- 
ficient to constitute a Christian ? 

Far from it; though many, indeed, think it 
is. Forms are not the end of Christianity, 
they are mere means of engendering and 
nourishing a Christian spirit. 

The Christian morality in commanding love to 
God, implies in this entire submission to the will 
of the Creator y does it not ? 

Conviction of the extent and importance of 
this commandment is of prime necessity. 
That the will of the Father— God, is to be 



CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 155 

done on earth as it is done in heaven, is an 
injunction clearly set forth. The propriety of 
distinguishing between the laws of God and 
the enactments of men, is thus proclaimed. 
Jesus also said, that he could do nothing 
which he had not seen done by his Father, 
and he declared that only they who did the will 
of God were his brothers, sisters, or mother. 

Does the will of God comprise the laws of cre- 
ation, that is to say, the natural laws ? 

Undoubtedly; because God and the Creator 
are one. Man indeed can create nothing; en- 
dowed with understanding to observe phenom- 
ena, and the conditions under which they oc- 
cur, he can, however, imitate in some degree, 
that which the Creator shows him; in other 
words, he can prepare the conditions neces- 
sary to elicit determinate effects; but he is 
still dependent on the laws of the Creator for 
the success of his undertakings. Jesus said, 
'My doctrine is not mine, but his that sent 
me.' (John vii.) 

Is there a difference between the belief in the 
natural laws and that of Christianity ? 

Those who merely believe in the fixed or- 



156 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

der of nature admit in the Creator a regard to 
general good rather than an affection to indi- 
viduals. They find the natural laws operating 
with an inflexible tardiness, and never varying 
to meet the wants of individuals, whilst Chris- 
tianity represents God as a Father endowed 
with paternal tenderness towards his offspring, 
and pardoning the sinner. Further, the belief 
in the Ordinary Course of Providence does 
not clearly conceive the reality of a future ex- 
istence, whilst Christianity promises and as- 
sures us of our immortality. Indeed, if man is 
to live again, he is not to live through any 
known laws of nature, but by a power higher 
than nature. 

Having seen in an early part of this book* 
that there are three kinds of natural laws, viz. 
vegetative, intellectual, and moral laws, which of 
these is the most important in the view of Chris- 
tianity ? 

The knowledge and practice of the moral 
laws. Jesus says, that his followers are to 
shine before men, by the light of their good 
works. (Matt, v.) He placed morality so 

*See page 16. 



CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 157 

far above every thing else, that some have 
imagined his aim to have been the annihilation 
of the physical and intellectual laws of man. 

What is the decision of good sense in Hiis par- 
ticular ? 

It recognises the moral laws as superior to 
the others ; assigns them the direction of all 
our actions ; introduces harmony among the 
functions that respectively constitute the mo- 
ral, the intellectual, and the vegetative laws 
of man, and it declares that nothing which God 
has created is ever to be neglected, much less 
to be annihilated. 

Is belief j or avowal of belief in the mission of 
Jesus, sufficient to constitute a Christian ? 

To be a Christian, it is not enough to recog- 
nise Jesus as the Son of God, the Redeemer 
of Man and the interpreter of the will of his 
Heavenly Father, or even to be convers- 
ant with his commandments; it is indispen- 
sably necessary to act upon the precepts he 
taught. 'He that hath my commandments, 
and keepeth them, he it is that loveth me.' 
(John xiv.) 'Not every one who sayeth unto 
me, Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom 
14 



158 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

of heaven, but he that doeth the will of my 
Father.' (Matt, vii.) c If ye keep my com- 
mandments, ye shall abide in my love, even 
as I have kept my Father's commandments, 
and abide in his love.' (John xv.) These are 
the Master's own words. Paul, too, says, 
'The kingdom of God is not in word, but in 
power,' i. e. deed. (1 Cor. iv.) 

What is the law which, although included un- 
der the general title, Love God, Jesus recom- 
mended in a particular manner ? 

It is the law of neighborly love : Thou shalt 
love thy neighbor as thyself, — do unto others 
as ye would that they did unto you, and do 
not to others the things ye would not that they 
did to you. 

Is the law of neighborly love of very extensive 
application ? 

It is the universal rule of conduct in all the 
relations of man with his fellow-men. They 
who practise it will never offend nor injure any 
one ; they will exert their utmost ability to re- 
scind arbitrary and unjust enactments, to 
crush tyranny, and to abolish slavery of every 
description; they will not live at the expense 
of others; they will be meek, indulgent, benev- 



CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 159 

olent, just and faithful ; they will never swerve 
from the path of peace, nor ever lose sight of 
general happiness as the end of their being. 

And to be a Christian it is necessary to 'prac- 
tise this law ? 

It is an indispensable condition to be so con- 
sidered. To say otherwise would either be to 
deceive ourselves, or to be guilty of hypocrisy. 
The law is clearly expressed. Jesus frequent- 
ly admonished his disciples to distinguish 
themselves by their love of each other. 

Is it easy or difficult to accomplish the law of 
neighborly love ? 

Jesus announced the law as the will of his 
heavenly Parent, and he exacts its fulfilment, 
even though it require the aid of resolution ; 
'because, 5 says he, 'no man putting his hand 
to the plough, and looking back, is fit for the 
kingdom of God. 5 (Luke ix.) And he adds, 
'When we have accomplished all that is com- 
manded, we have done no more than our duty.' 
He has, however, avowed, that it is extreme- 
ly difficult to enter into the kingdom of heaven, 
and that there is no perfectly just man in the 
world. The brethren of Jesus did not believe 
in him. (John vii. 5.) 



160 NATURAL LAWS OP MAN. 

Is it equally difficult for all men to be Chris- 
tians ? 

It is more easy for the poor than for the 
rich to love their neighbors as themselves. It 
was especially to the poor that Christ brought 
the good tidings. He has positively declared 
that it is extremely difficult for a rich man to 
enter the kingdom of God. (Matt. xix. 23.) 

Can we, in the enjoyment of privileges, love 
our neighbor as ourselves ? 

Good sense replies in the negative. 

Are Christians authorised by their doctrine 
to take or reclaim by force that which others 
enjoy, in opposition to the law of neighborly 
love ? 

By no means; they are forbidden to do evil 
to any one , or to use violence in any way. They 
form a class apart, and never serve as instru- 
ments in oppressive or exclusionary schemes; 
among them, there is neither master, nor serv- 
ant, nor slaves; they know but two grades or 
ranks in their community, — accomplished 
Christians and disciples, and the accomplished 
disciple attains the same footing as his teacher ; 
(Luke vi.) they recognise each of their members 



CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 161 

as possessed of particular gifts, but these all 
employ agreeably to the law of neighborly 
love; each is only answerable for the talents 
entrusted to his care; and, taking advantage 
of them in this spirit, all have, as all only re- 
quire, the same recompense. 'Christians, 'says 
Paul to the Romans, c form a body and many 
members ; they have different gifts, but each em- 
ploys that he possesses in union and in charity.' 

Is the formation of a Christian society possi- 
ble? 

Not among men as they are at present consti- 
tuted. The Jaw of neighborly love is sublime, 
and will remain true to eternity ; but it is not 
as yet given to man to adhere to its injunc- 
tions. To do this, the knowledge and prac- 
tice of the universal law of Christianity, Do 
the will of God, in ail its details, is indispen- 
sable; above all, the laws of hereditary descent 
must be enforced, in order to prepare mankind 
for the reception of the Christian doctrine in 
its purity. Without this course, the Holy 
Spirit will never remain among mankind. 

Christianity^ in promising everlasting life be- 
yond the grave } does not render temporal hap- 



162 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

piness incompatible with the prospect of such bliss, 
does it ? 

To say yes, would be equivalent to saying, 
that it is necessary to fall sick in order to lh*e 
well. True, in the actual state of things, the 
majority of mankind find the task of adherence 
to the natural laws extremely painful; but this 
does not prove that the Creator has willed it 
so, or resolved its endurance for ever. Chris- 
tianity, in directing the actions of the innate 
powers, cannot intend to abolish them; and 
each power, when satisfied, procures pleasure, 
and some are given only for the sake of tem- 
poral happiness. 

In what does the worship prescribed by Christi- 
anity principally consist ? 

It is reasonable and spiritual, not consisting 
in what is eaten or drunk, nor in distinctions 
made between days; (Rom. xiv.) it is a wor- 
ship which regards the sabbath as made for 
man, not man for the sabbath; c for the Son 
of man is Lord also of the sabbath;' (Mark*ii. 
27.) a worship, according to which the time 
will come — the time is even now come — 
when true adorers shall worship God in spirit 



CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 1 63 

and in truth; ( John iv. ) a worship, in f ne, 
which teaches that God is not served by men's 
hands, as if He had need of aught, — He who 
gives life and sweet consciousness of beir g to 
all, and sheds joy and harmony over his ( crea- 
tion. (Acts xvii.) The worship, in a v/ord, 
which the true Christian pays to God, con- 
sists in learning and practising his laws it* gen- 
eral, and in observing his ordinance of neigh- 
borly love in particular. 

Ho the religions and moral precepts of the 
New Testament surpass those of the Old, in per- 
fection and excellence! 

Whoever will compare the qualities attribu- 
ted to the Supreme Being, regard the spirit 
of the laws contained, and observe the means 
proposed for teaching these, in ea<;h, must 
inevitably recognise the infinite superiority of 
the doctrines of Christianity. 

What is the principal duty of the teachers of 
religion and morality! 

To know the universal law of Christianity; 
to study its particular laws, to spread abroad 
a knowledge of them, and to show their advan- 
tages to individuals, to existing communities, 



164 NATURAL LAWS OP MAN. 

and to posterity ; lastly, to attest their own be- 
lief, by practising its ordinances. They are 
to 'feed the flock of God which is among 
them, taking the oversight thereof, not by 
constraint, but willingly, not for filthy lucre, 
but of a ready mind; neither as being lords 
over God's heritage, but being ensamples to 
his flock.' (1 Pet. v.) Jesus said pointedly 
that his disciples were to be known, and true 
prophets distinguished from false, by their 
fruits. e Beware of false prophets, ye shall 
know them by their fruits. Do men gather 
grapes of thorns or figs from thistles?' (Matt, 
vii.) 

What idea do true Christians entertain of 
Frayer? 

When they pray they retire into their closet, 
and when they have shut the door, they pray, 
above all, that the will of their heavenly Fath- 
er may be done on earth. ( Matt. v. ) They 
'use not vain repetitions as the heathen do, 
who think they shall be heard for their much 
speaking.' They are assured that God knows 
all they require before they present their pe- 
tition. ( Matt vi. ) True Christians do not 



NATURAL RELIGION. 165 

suppose that they can please the Almighty by 
any kind of ceremony, by the burning of in- 
cense, or otherwise. They admire the Cre- 
ator in contemplating his works, in meditating 
on the laws which reign throughout the uni- 
verse; the further they advance in knowledge, 
the more do they overflow with reverence and 
gratitude; examine all their actions, whether 
or not they be in conformity with morality ; they 
strive to make amends when they have sinned, 
and they admit in principle that God listens 
to them in proportion only as they fulfil his 
laws, in little as well as in great things. 

By ivhat visible signs are true Christians, or 
the disciples of natural morality, distinguished 
from the rest of mankind? 

By their works ; by their submission to the 
laws of the Creator in general, and by their 
practice of the moral laws in particular. 'Ye 
are my friends,' said Jesus, 'if ye do whatever 
I command you, (John, xv.) It is in this tha \ 
ye will be known to be my disciples, if y<5 
have love one for another.' 



166 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN, 

V. 

OF CHURCH RELIGION. 

What is the meaning of the word church? 

1st. It designates a general society of in- 
dividuals professing the same religious princi- 
ples. 

2d. It also implies any special congregation 
making part of the general society. Churches 
are then named from the places at which they 
exist; as for instance, the church of Corinth, 
the church of Antioch, of Ephesus, &c. 

3d. It is used to designate the government 
of religious matters. 

4th. It signifies the building in which the 
members of the society or congregation as- 
semble, whether to improve in knowledge of 
their religious principles, to address prayers 
to God, to sing hymns to his praise, to return 
thanks for benefits conferred, generally or par- 
ticularly, on the members, or to offer adora- 
tion in any way whatever. 

How is the general Christian church entitled? 

It is called Catholic. 



CHURCH RELIGION. 167 

Are there more catholic churches than one? 

Several have at least taken the title. They 
are distinguished from each other by adding 
the name of the country or town where they 
severally commenced, or nourish. Thus there 
is a Roman catholic church, a Greek catholic 
church, an Anglican catholic church, and so 
on. 

Can the special societies of the general or 
catholic churches follow principles differing re- 
spectively? 

It is evident that congregations admitting 
different principles, do not constitute parts of 
one catholic church. 

Can several churches be catholic in one respect 
and divided in others? 

Yes; all which believe in the mission of Je- 
sus and in his miracles, are members of one 
catholic church, in as far as these points are 
concerned; but they may be divided into many 
churches in regard to the precepts admitted 
as Christian ordinances. 

Does the society that changes its religious prin- 
ciples, belong to the catholic church, of which it 
was a parti 



168 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

No; it forms a new church. 

Ou%ht there to be superiors in any church? 

Yes; it is well to have persons especially 
appointed to teach and to watch over the ac- 
complishment of the principles they admit re- 
spectively. 

Is any man justified in commanding in the 
name of God? 

The power of God is absolute, but if man 
arrogate such authority, disorder is inevitable. 
The ministers of religion ought to be respon- 
sible to the community for every one of their 
religious interpretations in the same way as 
the ministers of civil governments are answer- 
able for their measures. 

Can any reliance be placed on the word of 
him tvhose actions are at variance with his pre- 
cepts? 

No; more especially if the tendency of his 
teaching be favorable to himself. Jesus said: 
6 if I do not the works of my Father, believe me 
not' (John x. 37.) 

What is the common tendency of every estab- 
lished church? 



CHURCH RELIGION, 169 

The priesthood of every State-religion try to 
keep religious notions stationary and to main- 
tain the uniformity of discipline. 

Is it possible to keep moral and religious no- 
lions stationary? 

It may be done by Theocratical governments 
for a shorter or longer period, but it is im- 
possible where civil and religious governments 
constitute two separate powers. The pro- 
gress will be slow in proportion as both sorts 
of governors remain united; but views which 
are adapted, and even necessary to ignoran 
^generations, cannot satisfy enlightened minds, 
and must successively improve as well as arts, 
sciences and civil legislation. The technical, 
obscure and gloomy theology which has come 
down from times of ignorance, superstition 
and slavery, must yield to a system which is 
practical, clear and calculated to unfold the 
highest powers of our understanding and our 
Moral Sentiments. 

Is Protestantism compatible with the uniformi- 
ty of any religious doctrines? 

Xo; Protestantism is founded on the right 
of reasoning, and wherever this is allowed, the 
15 



170 NATURAL LAWS OF MAN. 

uniformity of doctrine cannot last, since the 
power of reasoning differs in degree in differ- 
ent persons. 

Is it wise in the priesthood of established 
churches to remain stationary whilst the nations 
improve in civilization? 

If the Sacerdocy do not keep path in arts 
and sciences with the community at large, 
their influence must diminish by degrees, and 
finally cease altogether. 

Since a variety of religious sects is unavoida- 
ble wherever the free use of reason is allowed, 
what should be their common tendency? 

Each sect should endeavor to establish har- 
mony in all branches of knowledge, physical, 
intellectual, religious and moral. 

Is it possible for any church to become univer- 
sal and permanent? 

Yes; that church will become universal and 
lasting whose religious principles shall be 
founded on a knowledge of the true nature of 
man, which shall establish harmony among all 
the primary faculties of the mind, and which 
shall elevate religion to the rank of a science. 
Every religious idea that contravenes reason 
can only endure for a time. 






CHURCH RELIGION,. 171 

What then should form the ground-ivork, and 
what the aim of that general religious reforma- 
tion^ whose necessity for the well being of man is 
so evident? 

With reason and belief in harmony, know- 
ledge and morality must be its foundation, and 
the universal happiness its aim. In other 
words, Christian morality ought to be taught 
in its purity, and become the essence of reli- 
gious belief. The practice of the moral law 
should be a necessary obligation on every 
member of society; whether induced by rea- 
son or by faith, by love or by fear, all should 
be bound to conform to its precepts. No 
mystical conception, however, ought on am 
account to be arbitrarily imposed. Every one 
should be left free to reject or to adopt, ac- 
cording to conscience, any opinion which is 
not at variance with the true spirit of Chris- 
tian and natural morality, — which is not inim- 
ical to the general peace and happiness. 



WORKS OF THE SAME AUTHOR 

REPUBLISHED IN BOSTON 
BY MARSH, CAPEN, AND LYON. 

I. Phrenology, or the doctrines of the mental 
phenomena. Vol. I. Physiological part. Vol. 
II. Philosophical part. 

II. Outlines of Phrenology. 

III. Elementary principles of Education. 

OTHER WORKS 

PUBLISHED BY THE SAME AUTHOR IN ENGLISH, 

I. Anatomy of the Brain, with eleven plates, 
8vo. 14s. 

II. Appendix to the Anatomy of the Brain, 
with seven lithographic plates. 3s. 

III. Observations on Insanity. 10s. 

IV. Phrenology in connexion with the study 
of physiognomy. Part I. Characters, with 
34 lithographic plates, Royal 8vo. 22s. 

V. Art. of the For x Quart. Review on Phre- 

k. 



V. Art. ot tne £or. s^uart 
noJogO\tth *ot^. Ols. Id 






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